Reviewing the Literature

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Reviewing the Literature
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Cant find the literature

• Common complaint couldt find anything in the
  literature that is related to their studies
• cant find exactly the same topic

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The role of related literature

• Define the frontiers of knowledge
• A has discovered this, B has discovered this, so
  what is left for you to discover?
• Enable the researcher to place their
  questions in perpective
• Any aditional knowledge in a meaningful way? Any
  link between your study and the body of
  knowledge?

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• Relate the proposed study with the previous study
• should remember the main purpose of the study
  is to add more knowledge to the field not to
  produce isolated knowledge. The question is where
  do you fit in the picture? What and how much new
  knowledge will I add to the existing knowledge?

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• Limit their research questions, clarify, and
  define the concepts of the study
• may be too broad, vague.
• Look at how others have defined certain
  constructs being investigated (stress,
  aggression, adjustment need to be defined and
  clarified)

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• Lead to insights into the reasons for
  contradictory results in the area
• Look at the theory, instruments, methodologies,
  data analyses
• Learn which methodologies have proven useful and
  which seem less promising
• To avoid unintentional replication of previous
  studies
• Put you in a better position to interpret the
  significance of your own results

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Sources of literature

• Encyclopedia of Educational Research (1992)
• Present critical synthesis and interpretation of
  reported educational research
• International Encylopedia of Educational
  Evaluation

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• ERIC database
• Index of dissertation and Theses (DAI)
• ProQuest Digital Dissertation
• Social Science Citation Index
• Government Publication (Economic Report)
• WWW

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• Need to check for the authentecity of the
  literature
• Accuracy of the literature
• Timeliness of the literature
• So what to do???

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Organizing literatur

• The hypothesis, the variables being investigated
  provide the framework for the organization of
  literature. It should lay a systematic foundation
  for the study.

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• Should begin with theoretical background related
  to the study start from broad and narrow it
  down
• Look at your hypotheses and variables being
  investigated

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Organizing the related literature

• Begin with the most recent
• Read the abstract or summary section of report
• Skim the report prior to taking notes
• Make notes should be easily accessible
• Write the reference for the notes

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• Review the theories to be used for your study
• Review previous studies related to your study
• Identify the variables being investigated
• Do not separate local and foreign literature
• Are the literature related to the study
• Concentrate your effort on the scientific
  literature
• Review early
• Summarize

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Writing references
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Reference Single-Author Book Part of a Book

• Alverez, A. (1970). The savage god A study of
  suicide. New York Random House.
• Garner, B. A. (2003). Garner's Modern American
  Usage. New York Oxford University Press.
• If the material cited is from a foreword,
  preface, introduction, or afterword, list the
  name of the author of the book element you are
  citing. Follow the date (which might be different
  from the actual publication date) with the name
  of the element, the title of the book, and, in
  parentheses, the page number or page range on
  which the element appears (with p. or pp. to
  indicate page or pages)
• Pepin, R.E. (2003). Introduction. Selected Poetry
  of Charles Darling 19772002 (pp. ivxxii).
  Colchester, CT Colophon Books.
• Paloutzian, R. F. (1996). Invitation to the
  psychology of religion  (2nd ed.). Boston Allyn
  and Bacon.     

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Reference Book with Two or More Authors

• Natarajan, R., Chaturvedi, R. (2003). Geology
  of the Indian Ocean Floor. Hartford, CT
  Merganser University Press.
• Ligon, M., Carpenter, K., Brown, W., Milsop, A.
  (1983). Computers in the world of business
  communications. Hartford, CT Capital Press.
• Notice the hanging indent style (about half an
  inch after the initial line). The abbreviation et
  al. (for "and others") is not used on the
  Reference page, regardless of the number of
  authors, although it can be used in the
  parenthetical citation of material with three to
  five authors (after the inital citation, when all
  are listed) and in all parenthetical citations of
  material with six or more authors.

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Reference Edition Other Than First(Republished
Book)

• Creech, P. J. (2004). Radiology and the
  technology of the absurd. Boston
  Houghton-Mifflin. (Original work published 1975)
• After the author's name, list the most recent
  date of publication you can find. In the text
  citation, give both dates (Creech, 1975/2004).

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Reference An Edited Volume(Anthology or
Reference Book

• Stanton, D. C., Farbman, E. (Eds.). (2003). The
  female autograph Theory and practice of
  autobiography. Middletown, CT Ibis Bookstore
  Press.
• If you are refering to an article or signed
  chapter in an edited volume, your reference would
  look like this
• Pepin, R. E. (2002). Uses of time in the
  political novels of Joseph Conrad. In C. W.
  Darling, Jr., J. Shields, E. C. Farbman (Eds.),
  Chronological looping in political novels (pp.
  99-135). Hartford Capital Press.
• Notice that there are no quote marks around the
  title of the article and that only the first word
  of a title is capitalized. The names of editors
  are listed first-initials-first (not reversed).
  The inclusive page numbers are preceded by the
  abbreviations for "pages" pp.

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Reference Book Without Author or Editor Listed

• Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary. (1961).
  Springfield, MA G. C. Merriam.
• To alphabetize such an entry on your Reference
  page, use the first significant word of the title
  (ignoring the articles, "a," "an," and "the").

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Reference Dissertation or Dissertation Abstract

• When you have used an abstract of the dissertion
  found on microfilm in Dissertation Abstracts
  International (DAI). If you are using a microfilm
  source, include in parentheses at the end of your
  entry, the university microfilm number.
• Darling, C. W. (1976). Giver of due regard the
  poetry of Richard Wilbur. Dissertation Abstracts
  International, 44, 4465. (AAD44-8794)
• When you have used the actual dissertation
  (usually from the shelves of the University where
  it was written, sometimes obtained through
  interlibrary loan)
• Darling, C. W. (1976). Giver of due regard the
  poetry of Richard Wilbur. Unpublished doctoral
  dissertation, University of Connecticut, Storrs,
  CT.
•  

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Reference Magazines/Periodicals

• Wheatcroft, G. (2004, June). The Tragedy of Tony
  Blair. The Atlantic, 293 5672.
• Thomas, E. Hosenball, M. (2004, May 31). Bush's
  Mr. Wrong The Rise and Fall of Chalabi.
  Newsweek, 143, 2232.
• Use inclusive page numbers. Do not use the
  abbreviations "p." or "pp."

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Reference Scholarly Journal

• Many scholarly journals number their pages
  consecutively throughout a given volume. Thus,
  volume one might end on page 345 and the first
  page of volume two would be number 345. Do not
  use p. or pp. to indicate page numbers. Notice
  that proper nouns are capitalized in an APA-style
  title, but other words are not. A comma separates
  the title of the journal from the volume number,
  but the volume number (as well as the comma that
  follows) is also italicized.

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• Christie, John S. (1993) Fathers and virgins
  Garcia Marquez's Faulknerian Chronicle of a Death
  Foretold. Latin American Literary Review, 13,
  2129.
• Murzynski, J., Degelman, D. (1996). Body
  language of women and judgments of vulnerability
  to sexual assault. Journal of Applied Social
  Psychology, 26,  1617-1626.  

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• If that article were found in a journal in which
  each issue has pages numbered separately (each
  issue begins with a page 1), the issue number is
  given in parentheses but not in italics after the
  volume number.
• Christie, John S. (1993) Fathers and virgins
  Garcia Marquez's Faulknerian Chronicle of a Death
  Foretold. Latin American Literary Review, 13(3),
  2129.

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Reference Newspaper Articles, EditorialsLetters
to the Editor, etc.

• If the article is "signed" (that is, you know the
  author's name), begin with that author's name.
  (Notice how discontinuous pages are noted and
  separated by commas.) Do not omit the "The" from
  the title of a newspaper (unlike the MLA
  technique).
• Poirot, C. (2004, March 17). HIV prevention pill
  goes beyond 'morning after'. The Hartford
  Courant, pp. F1, F6.

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• If the author's name is not available, begin the
  reference with the headline or title in the
  author position.
• New exam for doctor of future. (1989, March 15).
  The New York Times, p. B-10.
• If the text being cited is from an editorial or
  letter to the editor indicate the nature of the
  source in brackets after the title and date.
• Silverman, P.H. (2004, June). Genetic Engineering
  Letter to the editor. The Atlantic, 293 14.

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Reference Nonprint Resources (Film, Recording,
Video, television or radio program, etc.

• The source is identified in brackets after the
  title
• Redford, R. (Director). (1980). Ordinary people
  Film. Hollywood Paramount.
• (film with limited circulation)
• Holdt, D. (Producer), Ehlers, E. (Director).
  (2002). River at High Summer The St. Lawrence
  Film. (Available from Merganser Films, Inc., 61
  Woodland Street, Hartford, CT 06105)
• (Cassette)
• Lake, F. L. (Author and speaker). (1989). Bias
  and organizational decision making Cassette.
  Gainesville Edwards.

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• (Television program)
• Safer, M. (Narrator). (2004). Torture at Abu
  Ghraib Television broadcast. Hartford WFSB.
• (Musical recording)
• Barber, S. (1995). Cello Sonata. On Barber CD.
  New York EMI Records Ltd.

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Reference Personal Interview, Phone
Conversation, Letter, Non-archived E-Mail, etc.

• Because this material is not recoverable (i.e.,
  it is not possible for someone else to see or
  hear it), it should not be listed in the list of
  References. It can, however, be cited
  parenthetically within the text. It is extremely
  important that what is cited in this way be
  legitimate and have scholarly integrity.
• (interview)Wilbur finds himself sometimes
  surprised by the claims of religiosity made by
  contemporaries. (personal letter, March 28,
  1977) 
• (phone conversation)According to Connie May
  Fowler, the sources for her novel Sugar Cane were
  largely autobiographical

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Reference Classroom Lecture

• Like personal interviews and phone conversations,
  material presented in a classroom lecture is
  regarded as non-retrievable data. A lecture,
  therefore, should be cited within the text but
  not be included in your References. The model
  below could also be used for more formal lecture
  settings.
• In an Introduction to Literature lecture at
  Capital Community College on April 14, 2004,
  Professor Charles Darling described William
  Carlos Williams' poem as a barnyard snapshot
  (C.W. Darling, ENG 102 lecture, April 14, 2004).

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• If the lecturer distributed material at the
  lecture, you could cite that resource in your
  References
• Darling, C.W. (2004, April). Images at Work in
  the Poetry of William Carlos Williams. Outline
  presented in a classroom lecture at Capital
  Community College, Hartford, CT.

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Reference Government Documents

• Example
• National Institute of Mental Health. (1982).
  Television and behavior Ten years of scientific
  progress (DHHS Publication No. A 82-1195).
  Washington, DC U.S. Government Printing Office.

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• Reports from a Document and Deposit Service
  (NTIS, ERIC) other than U.S. government
• Examples
• Tandy, S. (1980). Development of behavioral
  techniques to control hyperaggressiveness in
  young children (CYC Report No. 80-3562).
  Washington, DC Council on Young Children. (NTIS
  No. P880-14322).
• Gottfredson, L. S. (1980). How valid are
  occupational reinforcer pattern scores? (Report
  No. CSOS-R-292). Baltimore, MD Johns Hopkins
  University. Center for Social Organization of
  Schools. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.
  ED 182 465)

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• Web document on university program or department
  Web site Degelman, D., Harris, M. L.
  (2000). APA style essentials. Retrieved May 18,
  2000, from Vanguard University, Department of
  Psychology Web site http//www.vanguard.edu/facul
  ty/ddegelman/index.cfm?doc_id796
• Stand-alone Web document (no date) Nielsen, M. E.
  (n.d.). Notable people in psychology of
  religion. Retrieved August 3, 2001, from
   http//www.psywww.com/psyrelig/psyrelpr.htm
• Stand-alone Web document (no author, no date)
  Gender and society. (n.d.). Retrieved December 3,
  2001, from http//www.trinity.edu/mkearl/gender.h
  tml

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• Journal article from database Hien, D.,
  Honeyman, T. (2000). A closer look at the drug
  abuse-maternal aggression link. Journal of
  Interpersonal Violence, 15, 503-522. Retrieved
  May 20, 2000, from ProQuest database
• Journal article, Internet-only journal
• Bergen, D. (2002, Spring). The role of pretend
  play in children's cognitive development. Early
  Childhood Research Practice, 4(1). Retrieved
  February 1, 2004, from http//ecrp.uiuc.edu/v4n1/b
  ergen.html

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Ethics in research
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WHAT SHOULD NOT YOU DO IN RESEARCH?
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THIS IS WHAT WE CALL ETHICS IN RESEARCH
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ethics and a researcher A researcher an an
individual Begins and ends with a
researcher Ethical research takes longer to
complete, cost more money, is more complicated,
and is more likely to be terminated before its
completion.
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Why unethical? Pressure, gain prestige, impress
people and many more.
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Scientific misconduct What is it? Fraud and
plagiarim. Scientific misconduct occurs when a
reseaRcher falsifies or distorts the data or
methods of data collection or plagariaszes the
work of others. What is reseaRch fraud? Fake or
invent data that were not really collected or
falsely reports how reseaRch was conducted
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Plagiarism? Steals the ideas or writing of others
or uses them without citing the source
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Power Relationship between the researcher and
subjects oR assistAnt involve power and trust.
There should not be abuse of power and trust by
the researcher on the subjects or assistant
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Ethics related to the research subjects physical
harm should not cause physical harm.
Anticipate risk before the conduct of research.
Screened high risk subjects if stress is
involved. Should accept moral and legal
responsibility for injury due to participation in
research and should terminate the project
immediately if yOu cant guarantee the safety of
the participants.
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Psychological abuse You may place people in
stressful, embarasSing, anxiety producing or
unpleasant situations. Should never create
unnecessary stress beyond the minimal amount
needed to create the dEsired effect, stress that
has no direct, legitimate reseaRch
purpose.KNowing the minimal amount comes with
experience
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Legal jeopardy Protecting subjects from
increases risk of arrest especially when you want
to study criminal Observing illegal behavior may
be central to a research project. If you supply
information to the authority, you violate ethical
standards regarding research subjects and
undermine future research.
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Other harm to subjects Like asking to recall
unpleasant events. Negative effect on their
careers and incomes. Like you make a study and
found out the supervisors performance are poor.
As a result, he may loose his job or get a pay
cut.
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Deception Never force anyone to participate and
do not lie unless it is required for legitimate
research reasons. Deception may increase mistrust
and diminish public respect.
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Informed Consent A fundamental ethical
principle of social research is NEVER COERCE
anyone to participate. It should be voluntary.
Subjects should be explained so they can make
informed decisions
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Content of informed consent
1. A brief description of purpose and procedures or research including expected duration of the study
2. A statement of any risk or discomfort associated with participation
3. A guarantee of anonymity and the confidentiality of records
4. The identification of the researcher and of where to receive information about subject rights or questions about the study
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5. A statement of participation is completely voluntary and can be terminated at anytime without penalty
6. A statement of alternative procedures that may be used
7. A statement of any benefits or compensation provided to subjects and the number of subjects involved
8. An offer to provide a summary of findings
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Privacy, anonymity, and confidentiality Privacy
can be violated to a minimal degree for a
legitimate research purpose. Protect the
information on research subjects form public
disclosure.
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Anonymity Anonymity means subject remain
anonymous and nameless. Protect privacy by not
disclosing a subjects identity after information
is gathered. Discard the name and address as soon
as you complete data collection and refer the
subjects by code number. You withheld the name.
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Confidentiality Even if anonymity is not
possible, confidentiality should be protected.
Anonymity protects the identity of specific
individuals. Confidentiality means keeping it
secret from the public. The information may have
names attached to it. The information is not
released In a way that permits linking......
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Ethics and scientific community Basic principles
of Ethical social Research based on UN
Declaration of Human Rights 1948 and 1964
Declaration of Helsinki.
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1. Ethical responsibility rest with the individual researcher
2. Do not exploit subjects or students for personal gain
3. Some form of informed consent is highly recommended or required
4. Honor all guarantee of privacy, anonymity, confidentiality
5. Do not coerce or humiliate subjects
6. Use deception only if needed and always accompany it with debriefing
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7. Use research method that is appropriate for the topic
8. Detect and remove undesirable consequences to research subjects
9. Anticipate the repercussions of the research or publication of results
10. Identify the sponsor who funded the research
11. Cooperate with host nation when doing comparative study
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12. Release the details of the study design with the results
13. Make the interpretation of results consistent with the data
14. Use high methodological standards and strive for accuracy
15. Do not conduct secret research
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Ethics and Sponsorship You may be asked to
compromise ethical or professional research
standards as a condition of getting grants. What
do you do? You have 3 choices (1) loyalty to the
organization or larger group cave in to the
sponsor (2) exit from the situation quit, (3)
voice opposition whistle-blower
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Arriving at particular findings directly or
indirectly you are asked to come up with the
desired findings. What will you do?
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Limit on how to conduct studies. Can a sponsor
limit research by defining what can be studied or
by limiting the techniques used. Sponsors can
legitimately set conditions on research
techniques used and limit cost of research. But
researcher must follow generally accepted
research methods. A researcher should refuse to
continue if he couldnt uphold the generally
accepted standards of research.
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(No Transcript)
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Suppressing findings What happen if the findings
are against your sponsor? Not uncommon in social
research. Negotiate condition for releasing
findings prior to he start of research. And if
possible sign a contract to that effect