FS Ch 1: History of Forensic Science K. Davis

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FS Ch 1History of Forensic ScienceK. Davis
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Deadly Picnic

• Before (Graphic Organizer)
• Take out data tables 1 2 for active reading.
• During (Deadly Picnic Mystery)
• Take the Data Table 1 and fill it in with
  information as you read the background
  information.
• Take the Data Table 2 and fill it in with
  information as you read the procedure.
• Answer the Post-Lab Questions
• After (Exit Slip) Turn in Lab Report
• Who did it? How do you know?

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Think/Pair/Share

• Think
• How long has forensic evidence been helping to
  solve crimes?
• Pair
• Discuss with your neighbor.
• Share
• Discuss as a class.
• What is the consensus?

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What is forensic science?

• Forensic (adj.)Pertaining to legal proceedings
  or public debate
• Forensic Science application of science to the
  processes of law and involves the collection,
  examination, evaluation, and
  interpretation of evidence

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Early History

• BCE (Before the Common Era) - Evidence of
  fingerprints in early painting rock carvings
• 44 BC - First recorded autopsy on Julius Caesar
• 700s - Chinese used fingerprints to establish
  identity of documents clay sculptures
• 1000 - bloody palm prints, planted evidence
• 1248 -1st record of the use of medical knowledge
  to analyze a crime - Chinese book, His Duan Yu
  distinguished drowning from strangulation
• 1547 - beginning of Forensic Pathology, Dr. Pare
• 1609 - Systematic document examination
• 1686 - noted fingerprint characteristics
• 1784 - 1st documented use of physical matching

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Say Something 1 to 2

• 1s tell the 2s
• 2 events that occurred during the early history
  (BCE) time period.
• 2s tell the 1s
• 2 more events that occurred during the early
  history (BCE) time period.

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1800s

• 1810 - first recorded use of questioned document
  analysis
• 1813 Orfila, the father of forensic toxicology,
  developed tests for the presence of blood and
  used the microscope to study blood and semen
  stains
• 1823 - first paper published on the nature of
  fingerprints and suggested a classification
  system based on nine major types
• 1828 invention of polarizing light microscope
• 1831 first noted amylase activity in human
  saliva

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1800s

• 1835 Henry Goddard used bullet comparison used
  to catch a murderer
• 1836 first use of toxicology in jury trial
  (arsenic poisoning)
• 1839 first published procedure for the
  microscopic detection of sperm
• 1851 first to identify of vegetable poisons in
  body tissue
• 1853 - development of the first crystal test for
  hemoglobin
• 1863 ability of hemoglobin to oxidize hydrogen
  peroxide first presumptive test for blood

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1800s

• 1864 - first use of photography for the ID of
  criminals documentation of evidence crime
  scenes
• 1879 first hair study conducted
• 1880 - first recorded use of fingerprints to
  identify an offender and solve a crime
• 1882 Thompson put his own thumbprint on wage
  chits to safeguard himself from forgeries.
• 1883 Bertillon identified the 1st recidivist
  based on his invention of anthropometry.
• 1887 Doyle published first Sherlock Holmes story

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1800s

• 1892 Galton published Fingerprints , the
  first comprehensive book on the nature of
  fingerprints and their use in solving crime.
• 1892 - Vucetich developed the fingerprint
  classification system that would come to be used
  in Latin America. Argentina was the first country
  to replace anthropometry with fingerprints.
• 1896 - Sir Edward Richard Henry developed the
  print classification system that would come to be
  used in Europe and North America. He published
  Classification and Uses of Finger Prints
• 1898 - Jesrich, a forensic chemist working in
  Berlin, Germany, took photomicrographs of two
  bullets to compare, and subsequently,
  individualize the minutiae.

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Say Something 2 to 1

• 2s tell the 1s
• 3 events that occurred during the 1800s
• 1s tell the 2s
• 3 more events that occurred during the 1800s

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1900s

• 1900 - development of ABO blood group typing
  technique
• 1901 development of precipitin test for
  species 1st to institute standards, controls,
  and QA/QC procedures
• 1901 adoption of fingerprint identification to
  replace anthropometry
• 1901 DeForrest pioneered the 1st systematic use
  of fingerprints in US
• 1902 Reiss and Bertillon set up one of the 1st
  academic curricula in forensic science

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1900s

• 1903 NY State prison began the 1st systematic
  use of fingerprints in US for criminal
  identification.
• 1903 At Leavenworth Federal Penitentiary in
  Kansas a man was confused with an inmate using
  anthropometry and later distinguished apart using
  fingerprints.
• 1904 Locards book leads to acceptance of
  Locards Exchange Principle Every contact
  leaves a trace.
• 1905 Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)
  established by TD Roosevelt

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1900s

• 1910 Locard established first police crime
  laboratory in France
• 1910 Osborne published Questioned Documents
• 1915 Lattes developed first antibody test for
  ABO blood groups
• 1916 Schneider first used a vacuum to collect
  trace evidence
• 1918 Locard first suggested 12 matching points
  as a positive fingerprint identification

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1900s

• 1920 Waite was first to catalog manufacturing
  data about weapons
• 1920s - establishment of popular practice of
  using the comparison microscope for bullet
  comparison
• 1921 portable polygraph designed
• 1923 Siracusa perfected the absorption-elution
  test for ABO blood typing of stains, base on work
  by Lattes
• 1923 - Frye vs. US, polygraph test results ruled
  inadmissible

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1900s

• 1924 first US police crime laboratory in Los
  Angeles, California
• 1925 Sirai first recognized secretion of
  group-specific antigens into body fluids
• 1926 the comparison microscope was popularized
  for bullet comparison
• 1931 absorption-inhibition ABO typing technique
  developed by Holzer (based on work by Lattes and
  Siracusa)
• 1932 FBI crime laboratory created
• 1935 - first interference contrast microscope
• 1937 usefulness of secretor status published
• 1937 - development of luminol

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1900s

• 1940 Landsteiner and Wiener first described Rh
  blood groups
• 1941 - study of voiceprint identification
• 1945 developed acid phosphatase test for semen
• 1950 School of Criminology established at U of
  C, Berkley
• 1950 tape lift method of collecting trace
  evidence developed
• 1954 - invention of Breathalyzer for field
  sobriety testing
• 1971 reliable protocols for the typing of
  polymorphic protein and enzyme markers to the
  United States and worldwide made available

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1900s

• 1974 detection of gun shot residue (GSR)using
  scanning electron microscopy with electron
  dispersive X-rays (SEMEDX)
• 1975 Federal Rules of Evidence were enacted as
  a congressional statute
• 1976 Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry
  (GCMS) first used for forensic purposes
• 1977 Matsumur developed Superglue fuming for
  latent prints

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1900s

• 1977 Automated Fingerprint Identification
  System (AFIS) created
• 1983 PCR conceived by Mullis
• 1984 Jeffreys developed the first DNA profiling
  test using RFLP patterns
• 1986 DNA used in court to exonerate an innocent
  suspect and solve the crime by identifying the
  murderer
• 1986 Erlich (Cetus Corp.) developed 1st
  commercial PCR typing kit specifically for
  forensics use available 1988

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1900s

• 1987 DNA profiling introduced in a US criminal
  court (RFLP analysis on Tommy Lee Andrews
  sexual assault)
• 1987 New York vs. Castro, first case in which
  the admissibility of DNA was seriously challenged
• 1990 first commercial ly available
  forensic DNA typing system by Cetus (later
  called Roche)

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1900s

• 1991 Integrated Ballistics Identification
  System (IBIS) developed by ATF and Walsh
  Automation, Inc.
• 1992 DNA short tandem repeat (STR) typing kits
  made commercially available
• 1992 Drugfire, a ballistics comparison system
  developed by the FBI and Mnemonic Systems

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1900s

• 1993 - Daubert vs. Merrell Dow
  Pharmaceuticals relaxed the Frye standard for
  admission of scientific evidence and conferred a
  gatekeeping role.
• 1994 five additional DNA markers
  (polymarkers) released by Roche Molecular
  Systems
• 1994 DNA Identification Act of 1994 authorized
  the FBI to operate the Combined DNA Index System
  (CODIS)

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1900s

• 1996 FBI introduced computerized searches of
  the AFIS fingerprint database
• 1996 mitochondrial DNA typing was admitted for
  the first time in a US court, TN vs. Ware
• 1998 an FBI DNA database (NIDIS) enabling
  interstate cooperation in linking crimes was put
  into practice

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1900s

• 1999 FBI upgraded its computerized fingerprint
  database and implemented the Integrated Automated
  Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS),
  allowing paperless submission, storage, and
  search capabilities directly to the national
  database maintained at the FBI.
• 1999 - A Memorandum of Understanding is signed
  between the FBI and ATF, allowing the use of the
  National Integrated Ballistics Network (NIBIN),
  to facilitate exchange of firearms data between
  Drugfire and IBIS.

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Say Something 1 to 2

• 1s tell the 2s
• 5 events that occurred during the 1900s
• 2s tell the 1s
• 5 more events that occurred during the 1900s

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2000s

• 2003 - Completion of the Human Genome Project, a
  13-year project coordinated by the US Department
  of Energy and National Institutes of Health to
  identify all of the approximately 20,00 25,000
  genes in human DNA, determine the sequences of
  the 3 billion chemical base pairs that make up
  human DNA, store this information in databases,
  transfer related technologies to the private
  sector, and address the ethical, legal, and
  social issues (ELSI) that may arise from the
  project. Analysis of this data will continue for
  many years.

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2000s

• Advancements continue in many forensic areas.
  For example
• DNA fingerprinting
• DNA profiling
• Forensic engineering
• Digital forensics
• X-ray Forensics for Guns

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321

• 1900s
• List 3 events from this time period.
• 1800s
• List 2 events from this time period.
• BCE
• List 1 events from this time period.

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Think/Pair/Share

• Think
• Pick one event you believe is the most important
  from each time period (BCE, 1800, 1900, 2000).
• Pair
• Discuss why you chose those events.
• Share
• Share with the class why your event is the most
  important.

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Important People in forensics

• Mathieu Orfila (1787-1853) the father of
  forensic toxicology
• Alphonse Bertillon (1853-1914) the father of
  criminal identification developed 1st system of
  personal identification using body measurements
  (called anthropometry)
• Francis Galton (1822-1911) developed
  methodology for fingerprinting

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Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (1859 1914)

• Wrote the Sherlock Holmes mysteries
• Holmes was the first to apply developing
  principles of serology, fingerprinting, firearm
  identification, and questioned-document
  examination.
• Excited the imagination of an emerging generation
  of forensic scientists and criminal investigators

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Important People in forensics

• Karl Landsteiner (1868 1943) discovered ABO
  blood grouping Rhesus (Rh) factor with Weiner
• Leone Lattes (1887-1954) developed techniques
  to determine ABO blood groups from dried
  bloodstains
• Calvin Goddard (1891-1944) expert in ballistic
  analysis (comparison microscope)
• Albert Osborn (1858-1946) developed principle
  of document examination

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Important People in forensics

• Walter McCrone (1916-2002) instrumental in
  using and perfecting microscope use in forensic
  analysis published and edited The
  Microscope for gt30 yrs
• Hans Gross (1847-1915) authored Criminal
  Investigation, the first treatise describing the
  application of scientific disciplines to field of
  criminal investigation
• Edmond Locard (1877-1966) created 1st police
  crime laboratory created the Locard Exchange
  Principle

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Locards Exchange Principle

• Locard Exchange Principle The exchange of
  materials between 2 objects that occurs whenever
  2 objects come into contact with one another
• Every Contact Leaves a Trace.
• He believed that every criminal can be connected
  to a crime by particles carried from the crime
  scene.
• When a criminal comes in contact with an object
  or person, a cross-transfer of evidence occurs.

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Discussion

• Which important person stands out the most to
  you?
• Why?

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Crime Labs

• 320 public crime labs in US (gt3-fold increase
  since 1966)
• Growth caused by
• Increasing crime rates
• 1960s Supreme Court decisions
• the requirement to advise criminal suspects of
  their constitutional rights and their right to
  immediate counsel
• the increase in drug-related cases requiring
  chemical confirmation from the lab
• the advent of DNA profiling (labor intensive)

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Crime Labs

• US - a system mostly of independent local
  laboratories with a lack of regional or national
  coordination.
• Britain - developed a national system of
  regional laboratories under the direction of the
  governments Home Office.
• function to train police investigators about
  physical evidence (ID, collection,
• preservation, etc.)

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Say Something What is responsible for the rapid
growth of crime labs?

• Increasing crime rates
• 1960s Supreme Court decisions
• the requirement to advise criminal suspects of
  their constitutional rights and their right to
  immediate counsel
• the increase in drug-related cases requiring
  confirmation from the lab
• the advent of DNA profiling (labor intensive)

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4 Major Federal Crime Labs

• FBI Federal Bureau of Investigation
  Laboratories (Department of Justice)
• Worlds largest crime lab
• Broad investigative powers
• DEA - Drug Enforcement Agency Laboratories
  (Department of Justice)
• Responsible for the analysis of drugs seized in
  violation of federal laws regulating the
  production, sale, and transportation of drugs

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4 Major Federal Crime Labs

• ATF Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms,
  Explosives Laboratories (Department of Justice)
• Responsible for analyzing alcoholic beverages and
  documents relating to tax law enforcement and for
  examining weapons, explosive devices, and related
  evidence received in conjunction with enforcement
  of the Gun control Act of 1968 and the Organized
  Crime Control Act of 1970
• Treasury counterpart to FBI
• US Postal Inspection Service Laboratories
• Maintains laboratories concerned with criminal
  investigations relating to the postal service

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4 Major Federal Crime Labs

• Each of these four federal facilities will offer
  its expertise to any local agency that requests
  assistance in relevant investigative matters.
• Many states have developed a statewide system of
  regional or satellite laboratories that operate
  under the direction of a central facility and
  provide forensic services to most areas of the
  state.
• Local laboratories provide services to county and
  municipal agencies. Generally they are
  independent of the statewide system.

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Mix Match

• Worlds largest crime lab
• Analysis of seized drugs
• Treasury counterpart to FBI analysis of
  alcoholic beverages, tax papers, weapons, and
  explosive devices
• Concerned with criminal investigations relating
  to the postal service

• ATF
• FBI
• USPS
• DEA

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Basic services

• Physical Science Unit applies principles and
  techniques of chemistry, physics, and geology to
  the identification and comparison of crime scene
  evidence (ex. drugs, trace evidence, soil and
  mineral analysis, glass, paint, and explosives)
• Biology Unit deals in identification and
  grouping of dried blood stains and other body
  fluids (DNA, blood, urine, saliva, semen),
  comparison of hairs and fibers, and the
  identification and comparison of botanical
  materials (wood and plants)

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Basic services

• Firearms Unit examination of firearms,
  discharged bullets, cartridge cases, shotgun
  shells, and ammunition of all types is conducted
  by the firearms unit. Garments and other objects
  are also examined in order to detect firearm
  discharge residues and to approximate the
  distance from a target at which a weapon was
  fired. Toolmark comparison is also investigated
  in this unit.

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Basic services

• Documents Unit handwriting and typewriting on
  questioned documents are studied by this unit to
  ascertain authenticity and/or source includes
  analysis of paper and ink, examination of
  indented writings, obliterations, erasures, and
  burned or charred documents
• Photography Unit examination and recording of
  physical evidence through photography

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(No Transcript)
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Optional/other services

• Anthropology age, sex, race, etc.
• Dactyloscopy study of fingerprints
• DNA Fingerprinting technique used to identify
  individuals based on their genetic code
• Engineering the investigation of materials,
  products, structures or components that fail or
  do not operate or function as intended, causing
  personal injury or damage to property

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Optional/other services

• Entomology insects to determine time of death
• Evidence Collection collect and preserve
  physical evidence
• Odontology dental records
• Pathology - autopsy
• Polygraph lie detectors
• Psychiatry behavior/insanity
• Toxicology - poisons
• Voiceprint Analysis - recordings

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Graphic Organizer
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Problems with crime labs can occur in any of
these 3 areas

• Chain of Custody chronological documentation or
  paper trail showing the seizure, custody,
  control, transfer, analysis and disposition of
  physical or electronic evidence
• Recognition and Collection of Evidence
• evidence has to be discovered
• it has to be collected
• it has to be transported to the lab where it is
  logged in, assigned an identification number,
  placed in storage, and kept from mingling with
  other evidence

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Problems with crime labs can occur in any of
these 3 areas

• Processing of Evidence
• labs must be contaminant- free
• tests properly performed documented
• evidence transported back into storage
• reports written on analysis of evidence

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Lab accreditation process

• Quality control manual
• Quality assurance manual
• Lab testing protocol
• Program for proficiency testing workers up to
  standards

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labs Attacks come in 3 ways

• Tampering to interfere with in a harmful
  manner to tinker with rashly or foolishly to
  engage in improper or secret dealings, as in an
  effort to influence

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labs Attacks come in 3 ways

• Contamination to make impure or unclean by
  contact or mixture
• Substitution accidental change or replacement
  mistakes

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Mix Match

• Tampering
• Substitution
• Contamination

• to make impure or unclean by contact or mixture
• to interfere with in a harmful manner
• accidental change or replacement mistakes

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Role of forensic scientist

• Collection Analysis of Physical Evidence
• must be skilled in applying the principles and
  techniques of the physical and natural sciences
  to the study of many types of evidence that may
  be recovered during a crime investigation

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Role of forensic scientist

• Must be aware of demands and constraints imposed
  by judicial system (evidence must be admissible
  in court)
• Frye vs. US
• Coppolino vs. State
• Daubert vs. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals
• Kumho Tire Co., LTD vs. Carmichael

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Frye vs. us (1923)

• Court held that expert opinion based on a
  scientific technique is admissible only where the
  technique is generally accepted as reliable in
  the relevant scientific community.
• Became known as the Frye standard, or general
  acceptance test test to determine the
  admissibility of scientific evidence.
• This applies to procedures, principles or
  techniques that may be presented in the
  proceedings of a court case.

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Coppolino vs. state (1966 1967)

• Dealt with the acceptability of new scientific
  tests
• Lab detected the presence of a drug not included
  in the existing drug tests
• New scientific testing detected the presence of
  the drug.
• It was admissible because the court realized the
  importance of keeping up with scientific
  developments.

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Daubert vs. Merrell Dow pharmaceuticals (1993)

• US Supreme Court held that the Federal Rules of
  Evidence superseded the Frye standard
• referred to as the Daubert standard
• Guidelines
• Can technique/theory be tested?
• Has technique/theory been subject to peer review
  and publication?
• techniques potential rate of error
• existence and maintenance of standards
• Has theory/method attracted acceptance within
  relevant scientific community?

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Kumho tire co., ltd vs. Carmichael (1999)

• Unanimously ruled that the gatekeeping role of
  the trial judge applies not only to scientific
  testimony, but to all expert testimony

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Mix Match

• court realized the importance of keeping up with
  scientific developments
• the Federal Rules of Evidence superseded the Frye
  standard
• gate keeping role of the trial judge applies to
  scientific testimony AND all expert testimony
• General Acceptance

• Frye vs. US
• Coppolino vs. State
• Daubert vs. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals
• Kumho Tire vs. Carmichael

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Role of forensic scientist

• Provide expert testimony
• Expert Witness an individual whom the court
  determines possesses knowledge relevant to the
  trial that is not expected of the average
  layperson testimony can include educated
  opinions about the topic in question
• Lay Witness testimony is based on events or
  observations that arise from personal knowledge,
  this testimony must be factual and should not
  include opinions

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Provide expert testimony (cont.)

• Qualifications for an expert witness
• establish to the satisfaction of a trail judge
  that he or she possesses a particular skill or
  has knowledge in a trade or profession that will
  aid the court in determining the truth of the
  matter at issue
• knowledge acquired through experience, training,
  education or a combination is sufficient grounds
  for qualification

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Provide expert testimony (cont.)

• The expert witnesss demeanor and ability to
  explain scientific data and conclusions clearly,
  concisely, and logically can influence the
  weight assigned to the expert testimony by the
  judge or jury.
• The expert witness should not be an advocate of
  one partys cause, but only an advocate of truth.
• The views expressed are accepted only as
  representing the experts opinion and may later
  be accepted or ignored in jury deliberations.

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Furnish Training in the proper recognition,
collection, preservation of physical evidence

• Every officer engaged in fieldwork, whether it be
  traffic, patrol, investigation, or juvenile
  control, will often have to process evidence for
  laboratory examination and should therefore be
  properly trained in evidence recognition and
  collection.
• This training is less detailed than the training
  of a qualified criminal investigator due to time
  constraints.

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The CSI Effect

• The tendency of the public to believe that every
  crime scene will yield forensic evidence and
  their unrealistic expectations that a
  prosecutor's case should always be bolstered and
  supported by forensic evidence is known as the
  CSI effect.

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Jascalevich Murder Trial Writing

• Follow these points
• When the case was first brought to the attention
  of Bergen County Prosecutors Office, what
  evidence caused them to terminate the case?
• What prompted the Prosecutors Office to reopen
  the case?
• List two main points for the prosecution.
• - New Scientific Methodologies - Results from
  Testing
• List two main points for the defense.
• - New Scientific Methodologies - Results from
  Testing
• What scientific information, shown by expert
  witnesses, Dr. Reiders and Dr. Holmstedt,
  prevented the new developments and discoveries
  from being used as evidence?
• Why was Dr. Jascalevich found not guilty?
• Include your own opinion on this case reading.