Chapter 9 Motivation and Emotion

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Chapter 9Motivation and Emotion
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Motivation Why do we do the things we do?

• Dynamics of behavior that initiate, sustain,
  direct, and terminate actions
• What makes us start, persist, focus on, and stop
  what we do?

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Types of Motives

• Primary (or Biological) Motive Innate (inborn)
  motives based on biological needs we must meet to
  survive
• Stimulus Motive Innate needs for stimulation and
  information (but not necessary for survival)
• Secondary (or Learned) Motive Based on learned
  needs, drives, and goals

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A Model of Motivational Activities

• Model of how motivated activities work
• Need Internal deficiency causes
• Drive Energized motivational state (e.g.,
  hunger, thirst) activates a
• Response Action or series of actions designed to
  attain a
• Goal Target of motivated behavior
• Incentive Value Goals appeal beyond its ability
  to fill a need

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Hunger Big Mac Attack?

• Homeostasis Body equilibrium balance
• Hypothalamus Brain structure regulates many
  aspects of motivation and emotion, including
  hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior
• Lateral Hypothalamus If turned on, an animal
  will begin eating if destroyed, an animal will
  never eat again!
• Ventromedial Hypothalamus Stops eating behavior

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Figure 9.2
FIGURE 9.2 In Walter Cannons early study of
hunger, a simple apparatus was used to
simultaneously record hunger pangs and stomach
contractions.
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Figure 9.3
FIGURE 9.3 Location of the hypothalamus in the
human brain.
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Figure 9.4
FIGURE 9.4 This is a cross section through the
middle of the brain (viewed from the front of the
brain). Indicated areas of the hypothalamus are
associated with hunger and the regulation of body
weight.
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More on Eating Behavior (Hungry Yet?)

• Neuropeptide Y (NPY) Substance in the brain that
  initiates eating
• Glucagon-like Peptide 1 (GLP-1) Substance in
  brain that terminates eating
• Set Point Proportion of body fat that is
  maintained by changes in hunger and eating point
  where weight stays the same when you make no
  effort to gain or lose weight

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The Final Word on Eating Behavior

• Leptin Substance released by fat cells that
  inhibits eating
• External Eating Cues External stimuli that tend
  to encourage hunger or elicit eating these cues
  may cause you to eat even if you are stuffed
  (like Homer Simpson, who eats whatever he sees!)

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Behavioral Dieting

• Weight reduction based on changing exercise and
  eating habits and not on temporary
  self-starvation
• Some keys
• Start with a complete physical
• Exercise
• Be committed to weight loss

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Behavioral Dieting (cont'd)

• Observe yourself, keep an eating diary, and keep
  a chart of daily progress.
• Eat based on hunger, not on taste or learned
  habits that tell you to always clean your plate.
• Avoid snacks.
• Reward yourself if you change eating habits and
  punish yourself if you do not.

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Taste

• Taste Aversion Active dislike for a particular
  food
• VERY difficult to overcome

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Eating Disorders Anorexia Nervosa

• Active self-starvation or sustained loss of
  appetite that seems to have psychological origins
• Control issues seem to be involved
• Very difficult to effectively treat
• Affects adolescent females overwhelmingly

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Figure 9.6
FIGURE 9.6 Women with abnormal eating habits were
asked to rate their body shape on a scale similar
to the one you see here. As a group, they chose
ideal figure is much thinner than what they
thought their current weights were. (Most women
say they want to be thinner than they currently
are, but to a lesser degree than women with
eating problems.) Notice that women with eating
problems chose an ideal weight that was even
thinner than what they thought men prefer. This
is not typical of most women. Only women with
eating problems wanted to be thinner than what
they thought men find attractive
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Eating Disorders Bulimia Nervosa (Binge-Purge
Syndrome)

• Excessive eating usually followed by self-induced
  vomiting and/or taking laxatives
• Difficult to treat
• Prozac approved by FDA to treat bulimia nervosa
• Affects females overwhelmingly

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Causes of Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa

• Anorectics and bulimics have exaggerated fears of
  becoming fat they think they are fat when the
  opposite is true!
• Bulimics are obsessed with food and weight
  anorectics with perfect control.
• Anorectics will often be put on a weight-gain
  diet to restore weight.

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Thirst and Pain

• Extracellular Thirst When water is lost from
  fluids surrounding the cells of the body
• Intracellular Thirst When fluid is drawn out of
  cells because of increased concentration of salts
  and minerals outside the cell
• Best satisfied by drinking water
• Pain Avoidance An episodic drive
• Distinct episodes when bodily damage takes place
  or is about to occur

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Sex Drive

• Estrus Changes in animals that create a desire
  for sex females in heat
• Estrogen A female sex hormone
• Androgens Male hormones

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Figure 9.7
FIGURE 9.7 These graphs show the frequency of
sexual intercourse for American adults. To
generalize, about one third of the people
surveyed have sex twice a week or more, one third
a few times a month, and one third a few times a
year or not at all. The overall average is about
once a week
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Sexual Behavior and Orientation

• Erogenous Zones Areas of the body that produce
  pleasure and/or provoke erotic desires (genitals,
  breasts, etc.)
• Sexual Orientation Degree of emotional and
  erotic attraction to members of the same sex,
  opposite sex, or both sexes
• Heterosexual Attracted romantically and
  erotically to the opposite sex
• Homosexual Attracted romantically and erotically
  to the same sex
• Bisexual Attracted romantically and erotically
  to both sexes

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Human Sexual Response Masters and Johnson

• Sexual response can be divided into four phases
  that occur in the following order
• Excitement Initial signs of sexual arousal
• Plateau Physical arousal intensifies
• Orgasm Climax and release of sexual tension
• Resolution Return to lower levels of sexual
  tension and arousal

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Arousal The need for stimulation
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Stimulus Drives

• Reflect needs for information, exploration,
  manipulation, and sensory input
• Sensation Seeking Trait of people who prefer
  high levels of stimulation (e.g., the contestants
  on Fear Factor)
• Yerkes-Dodson Law If a task is simple, it is
  best for arousal to be in the middle if the task
  is complex, lower levels of arousal provide for
  the best performance

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Figure 9.11
FIGURE 9.11 (a) The general relationship between
arousal and efficiency can be described by an
inverted U curve. The optimal level of arousal or
motivation is higher for a simple task (b) than
for a complex task (c).
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How to Cope With Test Anxiety

• Preparation
• Relaxation
• Rehearsal
• Restructuring thoughts

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Circadian Rhythms

• Cyclical changes in bodily functions and arousal
  levels that vary on a 24-hour schedule
• Preadaptation Gradual matching of sleep-waking
  cycles to a new time schedule before an
  anticipated circadian rhythm change (e.g., trying
  to adjust to new time zone to avoid jet lag)

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Figure 9.12
FIGURE 9.12 Core body temperature follows a
circadian rhythm. Most people reach a low point 2
to 3 hours before the time they normally wake
u Page Its no wonder that both the Chernobyl and
Three-Mile Island nuclear power plant accidents
occurred around 4 A.M. Rapid travel to a
different time zone, shift work, depression, and
illness can disrupt the bodys core rhythm, with
disturbing effects
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Figure 9.13
FIGURE 9.13 Time required to adjust to air travel
across six time zones. The average time to
resynchronize was shorter for westbound travel
than for eastbound flights.
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Learned Motives

• Social Motives Acquired by growing up in a
  particular society or culture
• Need for Achievement (nAch) Desire to meet some
  internal standard of excellence
• Need for Power Desire to have impact or control
  over others

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Measure Your Own Need for Achievement

• Well use two measures
• Cautionbe aware of the social desirability
  response bias
• Use meta-cognitive skillsDo I honestly feel
  this way or am I just trying to look good?

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Scoring

• Test 1
• Count the number of yes responses
• The more yes responses, the higher your need
  for achievement
• Test 2
• Give yourself a point each time any of the
  following is mentioned
• Defining a problem
• Solving a problem
• Obstructions to solving a problem
• Techniques that can help overcome the problem
• Anticipation of success or resolution of the
  problem

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Achievement Motivation

• Characteristics of those high in need for
  achievement
• moderate risk takers
• Avoid goals that are too easy or too hard
• Complete difficult tasks
• Earn better grades
• Tend to excel in chosen occupations
• Attribute success to ability failure to
  insufficient effort
• More likely to renew efforts when they perform
  poorly
• Can you think of some disadvantages of a direct,
  objective test like this?

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Measuring the Need for Achievement

• TAT
• Measuring the need for achievement is complex and
  difficult to do.
• It involves looking at not only how much, but
  also why some people achieve more than others.
• A projective personality test, the Thematic
  Apperception Test or TAT, has been used for this
  purpose.

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TATThematic Apperception Test

• Developed by Henry Murray, personality theorist
• Projective device consisting of 20 drawings
  (black and white) of various situations
• People must make up stories about the people in
  it
• Central themes are examined and interpreted
• Good at revealing feelings about a persons
  social relationships
• Disadvantages?

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Abraham Maslow and Needs

• Hierarchy of Human Needs Maslows ordering of
  needs based on presumed strength or potency some
  needs are more powerful than others and thus will
  influence your behavior to a greater degree
• Basic Needs First four levels of needs in
  Maslows hierarchy
• Lower needs tend to be more potent than higher
  needs
• Growth Needs Higher-level needs associated with
  self-actualization

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Figure 9.14
FIGURE 9.14 Maslow believed that lower needs in
the hierarchy are dominant. Basic needs must be
satisfied before growth motives are fully
expressed. Desires for selfactualization are
reflected in various metaneeds (see text).
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Types of Motivation

• Intrinsic Motivation Motivation coming from
  within, not from external rewards based on
  personal enjoyment of a task
• Extrinsic Motivation Based on obvious external
  rewards, obligations, or similar factors (e.g.,
  pay, grades)

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Emotions

• State characterized by physiological arousal and
  changes in facial expressions, gestures, posture,
  and subjective feelings
• Physiological Changes Include heart rate, blood
  pressure, perspiration, and other involuntary
  bodily responses
• Emotional Expression Outward signs of what a
  person is feeling
• Emotional Feelings Private emotional experience

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Plutchiks First Four Primary Emotions

• Most basic emotions are
• Fear
• Surprise
• Sadness
• Disgust

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Plutchiks Last Four Primary Emotions (cont'd)

• Anger
• Anticipation
• Joy
• Acceptance

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Figure 9.15
FIGURE 9.15 Primary and mixed emotions. In Robert
Plutchiks model, there are eight primary
emotions, as listed in the inner areas. Adjacent
emotions may combine to give the emotions listed
around the perimeter. Mixtures involving more
widely separated emotions are also possible. For
example, fear plus anticipation produces anxiety.
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Figure 9.16
FIGURE 9.16 Folklore holds that people who work
or attend school on a weekly schedule experience
their lowest moods on Blue Monday. Actually,
moods tend to be generally lower for most
weekdays than they are on weekends. The graph
shown here plots the average daily moods of a
group of college students over a 5-week period.
As you can see, many people find that their moods
rise and fall on a 7-day cycle. For most
students, a low point tends to occur around
Monday or Tuesday and a peak on Friday or
Saturday.
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Brain and Emotion

• Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) Neural system
  that connects brain with internal organs and
  glands
• Sympathetic Branch Part of ANS that activates
  body for emergency action
• Parasympathetic Branch Part of ANS that quiets
  body and conserves energy

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• Figure 12.2
• The autonomic nervous system consists of the
  sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems,
  which sometimes act in opposing ways and
  sometimes cooperate. The sympathetic nervous
  system readies the body for emergency action the
  parasympathetic nervous system supports digestive
  and other nonemergency functions.

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• Figure 12.4 the ultimate rush
  PARASYMPATHETIC REBOUND
• After the stimulus eliciting the sympathetic
  response is removed, that response is reduced,
  and the opposing parasympathetic response is
  enhanced. This is why people sometimes feel faint
  at the end of an exciting experience.

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• Sudden Death
• After strong emotional shock, sympathetic system
  becomes too active
• Results in excessive stress
• Parasympathetic Rebound
• After shock, parasympathetic system overreacts
• lowers blood pressure too much
• Slows heart to a stop

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Lie Detectors

• Polygraph Device that records heart rate, blood
  pressure, respiration, and galvanic skin response
  (GSR) lie detector
• GSR Measures sweating
• Irrelevant Questions Neutral, unemotional
  questions in a polygraph test
• Relevant Questions Questions to which only
  someone guilty should react by becoming anxious
  or emotional
• Control Questions Questions that almost always
  provoke anxiety in a polygraph (e.g. Have you
  ever taken any office supplies?)

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• Figure 12.7b
• The polygraph, a method for detecting nervous
  arousal, is the basis for the so-called lie
  detector test. The polygraph operator (a) asks a
  series of nonthreatening questions to establish
  base-line readings of the subjects autonomic
  responses (b), then asks questions relevant to an
  investigation. The underlying assumption is that
  an increase in arousal indicates nervousness,
  which in turn indicates lying. Unfortunately, a
  large percentage of innocent people become
  nervous and therefore appear to be lying.

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Body Language (Kinesics)

• Study of communication through body movement,
  posture, gestures, and facial expressions
• Facial Blends Mix of two or more basic
  expressions

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Three Types of Facial Expressions

• Pleasantness-Unpleasantness Degree to which a
  person is experiencing pleasure or displeasure
• Attention-Rejection Degree of attention given to
  a person or object
• Activation Degree of arousal a person is
  experiencing

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Figure 9.19
FIGURE 9.19 When shown groups of simplified faces
(without labels), the angry and scheming faces
jumped out at people faster than sad, happy, or
neutral faces. An ability to rapidly detect
threatening expressions probably helped our
ancestors survive.
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Theories of Emotion

• James-Lange Theory Emotional feelings follow
  bodily arousal and come from awareness of such
  arousal.
• Cannon-Bard Theory The thalamus (in brain)
  causes emotional feelings and bodily arousal to
  occur at the same time.
• Schachters Cognitive Theory Emotions occur when
  a label is applied to general physical arousal.
• Attribution Mental process of assigning causes
  to events attributing arousal to a certain
  source.
• Facial Feedback Hypothesis Sensations from
  facial expressions and help define what emotion
  someone feels.

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• FIGURE 12.9
• According to the James-Lange theory,
  physiological arousal determines the nature of an
  emotion. According to Schachter and Singers
  theory, physiological arousal determines the
  intensity of an emotion, but not which emotion is
  experienced.

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Figure 9.21
FIGURE 9.21 Theories of emotion.
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A Modern View of Emotion

• Each of these theories has some truth, so can we
  combine them in a way that makes sense?

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Figure 9.23
FIGURE 9.23 A contemporary model of emotion.
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Happiness

• Subjective Well-Being (SWB) When people are
  satisfied with their lives, have frequent
  positive emotions, and have relatively few
  negative emotions
• Are these factors related to happiness?
• Wealth No relation
• Education Not really
• Marriage Not really
• Religion Minimally

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Happiness Factors (cont'd)

• Aging Happiness does not decline with age.
• Sex Men and women do not differ in happiness.
• Work No.
• Personality If you have a sunny disposition,
  you are more likely to be happy.