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Motives are the needs, wants, interests, and
desires that propel people toward
behavior. Drive theories hold that motivation is
based in an internal state of tension that
motivates an organism to engage in activities
that should reduce this tension organisms seek
to maintain homeostasis, or a state of
equilibrium or stability.
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Incentive theories hold that motivation is
regulated by external stimuli for example, ice
cream, an A, or money. High-incentive goals, such
as eating ice cream, lead to higher drives, even
if the need is low.
Most theories identify between 10 and 15
biological needs, reflecting automatic processes
for survival. Social motives are more
complicated, as they can vary depending on
experience.
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In the early 1900s, Walter Cannon and A.L.
Washburn hypothesized that there is an
association between stomach contractions and the
experience of hunger Cannon hypothesized a
causal relationship, yet people who have their
stomachs removed still experience hunger. This
realization led to more complicated theories
focusing on the brain, blood sugar, and hormones.
Research in the 40s and 50s showed that the
hypothalamus, particularly two areas called the
lateral hypothalamus (LH) and the ventromedial
nucleus of the hypothalamus (VMH), are important
in hunger. The LH was thought to be the hunger
center, while the VMH was thought to be the
satiety center. Subsequent research indicated
that this was an oversimplified picture although
the LH and VMH are part of the hunger circuit,
they are not the key elements. The
paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus has
recently been implicated as another influential
part of the hunger circuit. Increased levels of
ghrelin play a particularly crucial role in
stimulating hunger. Ghrelin performs double duty
as a neurotransmitter in the nervous system and
as a hormone in the endocrine system. In both
systems, elevated ghrelin levels are associated
with increased food intake.
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Other research has focused on the role of blood
glucose and digestive regulation on hunger when
blood sugar goes down, hunger goes up.
Glucostatic theory proposed that fluctuations in
blood glucose level are monitored in the brain by
glucostats neurons sensitive to glucose in the
surrounding fluid. It appears likely that hunger
is regulated, in part, through glucostatic
mechanisms. Hormones circulating in the blood
also appear to be related to hunger. Insulin,
secreted by the pancreas, must be present for
cells to use blood glucose. Increases in insulin
increase hunger, and the mere sight and smell of
food has been shown to increase insulin.Recently,
a new hormone, leptin, has been discovered to be
released from fat cells into the bloodstream.
Leptin is believed to signal the hypothalamus
about fat stores in the body, causing decreases
in hunger when fat stores are high.
Clearly, hunger is related to biology however,
it is also regulated by environmental factors
like learned preferences. Studies show that
people like foods that are familiar to them dog
meat is a delicacy in some parts of the world.
Exposure and observational learning appear to
play a part in what we like to eat. Learning also
appears to influence when and how much people
eat.
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William Masters and Virginia Johnson conducted
groundbreaking research in the 1960s, using
physiological recording devices to monitor the
bodily changes of volunteers engaging in sexual
activity. They outlined four stages in the sexual
response cycle.
The excitement phase is the initial arousal,
which escalates quickly. Muscle tension,
respiration rate, heart rate and blood pressure
increase. Vasocongestion engorgement of blood
vessels occurs in the genitals. Click to
continue. The plateau phase occurs when
physiological arousal continues to build, but at
a slower pace. Click to continue. The orgasm
phase occurs when sexual arousal reaches its peak
intensity and is discharged in a series of
muscular contractions that pulsate through the
pelvic area. The subjective experience of orgasm
is very similar for men and women, although women
can be multi-orgasmic. On the other hand, they
are more likely to engage in intercourse without
experiencing an orgasm. Click to continue. The
resolution phase is characterized by subsiding
physiological arousal. Men experience a
refractory period after orgasm, when they are
largely unresponsive to further stimulation. This
may last from a few minutes to a few hours and
increases with age.
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Evolutionary analyses of human sexual motivation
have focused on the difference between male and
female parental investment. If males are to
maximize their number of fertile offspring, they
might do so by mating with as many females as
possible. Females, on the other hand, must carry
and then feed their offspring, who will not
survive without considerable investment on her
part. This difference in required investment has
been used to explain other gender differences in
sexual activity and preferences. Males think
more about sex, and are more motivated to seek
sex with many different partners, than are
females.
Because female fertility is not itself
observable, evolutionary theorists suggest that
the best stand-in for female fertility are
characteristics like youth and physical features
that males have come to regard as beautiful
because they predict fertility. Males therefore
should have a stronger preference than do females
for mates that are young and attractive.
Conversely, females should be more interested
than are males in a mate who has resources to
invest in children. Because resources often come
with age, females should generally prefer a mate
older than themselves and with characteristics
predictive of future success, such as
intelligence, ambition, and diligence. The
resemblance between evolutionary psychologists
predictions and common stereotypes has led to
intense criticism of these theories, and it is
certainly the case that these evolutionary
considerations are not the only possible
explanation of the data. More research is needed
in this area.
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Sexual orientation refers to a persons
preference for emotional and sexual relationships
with individuals of the same sex (homosexuality),
the other sex (heterosexuality), or either sex
(bisexuality). Recent conceptualizations of
sexuality hold that homosexuality and
heterosexuality are endpoints on a continuum.
Data on the prevalence of homosexuality
suggests that 5-8 of the population may have a
homosexual orientation.
Many environmental theories explaining
homosexuality have been put forth historically.
Freud held that a person must identify with the
same sexed parent, or homosexuality results.
Behaviorists assert that homosexuality is learned
through conditioning. Research has failed to
support either theory. What has been found is
that most men and women with homosexual
orientations can trace their leanings back to
early childhood, suggesting a biological
basis. Biological research suggests that there
is a genetic predisposition to homosexuality,
possibly based on the X chromosome. Anatomical
differences between gay and straight men in the
size of the anterior hypothalamus have also been
found. This structure is larger in men than in
women, and this study showed that gay men had a
50 smaller AH than straight men. Some theorists
believe that anatomical brain differences such as
these may be due to the organizing effects of
prenatal hormones on neurological
development. The interactionist view holds that
genes and prenatal hormones shape a childs
temperament, which initiates a chain of events
that ultimately shapes sexual orientation.
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Achievement motivation is generally measured
using the Thematic Apperception Test, a
projective test which requires a subject to write
or tell stories about what is happening in
pictures of people in ambiguous scenes.
Achievement motivation involves the need to
excel, especially in competition with others.
People who are relatively high in the need for
achievement work harder and more persistently,
they tend to delay gratification well and to
pursue competitive careers. Situational factors
have been shown to influence achievement
motivation, causing it to increase when the
probability of success and the incentive value of
success are high. Additionally, the pursuit of
achievement can be influenced by a fear of
failure, so that the motive to avoid failure
stimulates achievement.
The cognitive component of emotion involves
subjective feelings that have an evaluative
aspect. The cognitive appraisal of an event is an
important element in emotional experience.
Emotional processes are also tied to physiology,
but in extremely complex ways.
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The physiological arousal associated with emotion
occurs through the actions of the autonomic
nervous system. The autonomic nervous system is
responsible for the highly emotional
fight-or-flight response. The galvanic skin
response (GSR) measures autonomic activation
the device that measures autonomic fluctuations
while a person is questioned is called a
polygraph or lie detector (really an emotion
detector). Polygraph tests measure emotion, which
may or may not be due to deceit they are
inaccurate often enough that they are deemed not
reliable enough to be submitted as evidence in
most types of courtrooms.
In the brain, the limbic system is the emotional
circuit (the hypothalamus, the amygdala, and
adjacent structures) Joseph LeDoux (1996) has
shown that the amygdala plays a particularly
central role in modulating emotions.Sensory
inputs that trigger fear arrive first in the
thalamus and then take a fast path directly to
the amygdale, as well as a slow path through the
cortex.
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Behaviorally, emotions are expressed through body
language and facial expressions. Research
indicates considerable cross-cultural
similarities in the ability to differentiate
facial expressions of emotion. The
facial-feedback hypothesis holds that facial
muscles send signals to the brain that help it
recognize the emotion being experienced, as when
we smile and feel better.
Cross-cultural similarities have also been found
in the cognitive and behavioral components,
although display rules, or norms for regulating
appropriate expression of emotion, vary from
culture to culture. In this video, researchers
explore different emotional expressions across
cultures by interviewing and surveying people
from different cultures.
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The James-Lange theory of emotion holds that you
see a snake, your pulse races, and you feel
afraid because your pulse is racing. The
Cannon-Bard theory holds that you see a snake,
the information is sent to the thalamus, which
relays the signals simultaneously to the cortex
and to the autonomic nervous system. Schacters
Two-Factor theory holds that you feel autonomic
arousal and search your environment to see why
if theres a snake, for example, you feel fear.
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