Selling an Idea or a Product

1
Social Psychology and Motivation in
Sport Hagger Chatzisarantis Chapter 5
2
What is Motivation?

• Shes a highly motivated person
• She didnt have enough encouragement to motivate
  her
• What was their motivation?
• He wasnt very motivated to get out of bed
  today

3
What is Motivation?

• The direction and intensity of ones effort
• Sage (1977)
• Contrast
• Trait-like perspective
• State-like or situational perspective
• Interactional approach

4
What is Motivation?

• Why people initiate, choose, or persist in
  specific actions in specific circumstances
• Mook (1987)
• Motivation has to do with why any behaviour gets
  started, is energized, is sustained, is directed,
  is stopped and what kind of subjective reaction
  is present in the organism when all this is going
  on
• Jones (1955)
• Motivation is what gets you started, habit is
  what keeps you going
• Jim Ryun

5
Weiners (1972) Attribution theory

• Attributions inferences about causes
• Achievement behavior depends on how previous
  successes and failures are interpreted
• People make causal attributions for their
  achievement outcomes
• Attributions affect thoughts, feelings, and
  behavior

6
Weiners (1972) Attribution theory

• n People tend to attribute successes or failures
  to any of four typical causes
• n Ability
• n Effort
• n Difficulty
• n Luck

7
Weiners (1972) Attribution Dimensions
Basic Attribution Categories
Locus of causality
Locus of control
Stability
8
Weiners (1972) 2 x 2 Taxonomy of Attributions
Stable External
Stable Internal
Stability
Unstable Internal
Unstable External
Locus of Causality
9
Weiners (1972) Attribution Dimensions
Attribution Dimensions n Attributions can be
classified along three dimensions 1) Locus of
Causality -Is the cause internal or external? 2)
Stability -Is the cause stable or unstable? 3)
Locus of control -Does the person have control
over the outcome?
10
Weiners (1972) Attribution Dimensions
Stable Internal Uncontrollable
Stable External Uncontrollable
Unstable Internal Uncontrollable
Stable External
Stable Internal
Stable Internal Controllable
Stable External Controllable
Unstable External Uncontrollable
Controllable
Controllable
Stability
Unstable Internal
Unstable External
Unstable Internal Controllable
Unstable External Controllable
Controllable
Controllable
Controllability
Locus of Causality
11
Weiners (1972) Attribution Dimensions

• Attributed causes according to Internal-External
  (Locus of Causality), Stability and
  Controllability continuums
• n Ability
• n Internal, stable, uncontrollable
• n Effort
• n Internal, unstable, controllable
• n Difficulty
• n External, stable, uncontrollable
• n Luck
• n External, unstable, uncontrollable

12
Adaptive Causal Attributions

• Effort attributions for success (internal,
  unstable, controllable)
• Cognitive I did well because I studied hard
• Affective I feel good because I worked hard and
  it paid off
• Behavioural I will try hard again next time and
  expect to do well

13
Adaptive Causal Attributions

• Effort attributions for failure (internal,
  unstable, controllable)
• Cognitive I did poorly because I didnt study
  hard enough
• Affective I feel optimistic that next time I
  will do better
• Behavioural I will try harder next time and
  expect to do well

14
Problematic and Maladaptive Causal Attributions

• n Ability
• n What does this mean for future
• successes and failures if ability is fixed?
• n Luck
• n Successes and failures are at the whims of
  fate

15
Importance of Attributions and Limitations

• Affect our future expectations of success and
  failure and related to positive emotional
  profiles (Biddle et al., 2001)
• Determines future cognitions, attitudes and
  behavior (e.g., self-confidence, self-efficacy)
• Thus attributions affect the ANTECEDENTS
  (expectations) of future behaviour
• Biddle et al. (2001) suggests that attribution
  theory gives only a partial explanation and
  focuses on too narrow a set of constructs

16
Banduras (1977, 1997) Social Cognitive Theory

• Examines the effect of vicarious experience
  (watching others) and confidence influence
  motivation and behaviour
• Beliefs about skills and abilities central to the
  theory
• Key construct is self-efficacy
• Self-efficacy Situation specific self-confidence
  to achieve outcomes e.g., a hockey players goal
  of completing a 90 pass rate in a match
• Self-efficacy arises from several sources of
  information about an athletes ability to
  produce outcomes
• Two broad categories of information previous
  experience and current influences
• There are two sets of outcomes behavioural and
  psychological

17
Banduras (1977, 1997) Social Cognitive Theory
Sources
Outcomes
Self-efficacy

• Performance
• accomplishment
• Vicarious
• experience

• Goal pursuit
• Affective
• outcomes
• Attributions

Psychological outcomes
Experience

• Situation-specific
• Beliefs in ability
• to produce
• outcomes
• Beliefs about
• outcomes

Features of self-efficacy

• Verbal
• persuasion
• Psychological
• states

Current influences

• Choice
• Effort
• Persistence

Behavioural outcomes
18
Self-Efficacy in Sport

• Meta-analyses show a moderate effect between
  self-efficacy and performance such as in the
  workplace (Stjkovic Luthans, 1998)
• Narrative reviews acknowledge the effect of
  self-efficacy beliefs on sport performance (Feltz
  Chase, 1998 McAuley Blissmer, 2002)
• Self-efficacy is therefore an important
  motivational construct in sport
• Experimental evidence using bogus feedback
  supports self-efficacy on motor task
• Bogus feedback shows the performer does better
  or worse than they actually did they then
  self-report their self-efficacy
• E.g. Weinberg et al. (1980) demonstrated that
  high-self-efficacy performers did better on
  subsequent tasks

19
Outcome Expectancies in Sport

• Outcome expectancies reflect beliefs that the
  behaviour will result in desired outcomes rather
  than beliefs about ability (Bandura, 1977, 1997)
• Personal evaluations of outcome shown to affect
  performance better than objective evaluations in
  gymnasts (Halliburton Weiss, 2002)
• Outcome self-efficacy was more important than
  performance self-efficacy on performance on a
  motor-tasks (Martin Gill, 1991)
• Outcome expectancies found to moderate the
  influence of self-efficacy on behaviour and
  outcome (Williams Bond, 2002)

20
Where Does Self-Efficacy Come From?

• Antecedents of self-efficacy
• Previous experience indicates performance
  accomplishment in the past (Feltz Chase, 1998)
• Vicarious experience Studies using models
  indicate that these improve self-efficacy e.g.
  verbal and visual cues in weight training
  (Carnahan et al., 1990)
• Physiological states Cognitive and somatic
  anxiety levels predict self-efficacy (Martin
  Gill, 1991)
• Multiple sources of information Gould and Weiss
  (1981) studied impact of model (similar vs.
  dissimilar) and verbal persuasion (self-efficacy
  talk vs. no talk) and Wise and Trunnell (2001)
  found 3 types of information positively affected
  performance in weight training

21
Enhancing Self-Efficacy

• To enhance self-efficacy the following techniques
  have been used
• Goal setting Basketballers who received training
  to set appropriate goals had a stronger
  relationship between self-efficacy and free-throw
  performance (Miller McAuley, 1997)
• Imagery Imagery may provide a self-model to
  enhance self-efficacy given the influence of
  modeling on self-efficacy. Research using imagery
  has shown that it enhances self-efficacy in
• Muscular endurance tasks (Feltz Chase, 1998)
• Rock climbers (Jones et al., 2002
• Golf-putting tasks (Short et al., 2002)

22
Implicit Theories of Ability Achievement Goal
Theory

• Achievement goal theory was developed in the
  context of achievement motivation in educational
  contexts (Nichols, 1984 Dweck, 1992)
• Central idea Peoples conception of ability was
  based on 2 personal theories about ability
  (e.g., intelligence)
• From Dwecks (1992) theories on classroom
  achievement motivation? Which statement do you
  agree with?
• (A) I can improve my intelligence
• -OR-
• (B) I can learn new things, but my intelligence
  stays pretty much the same

23
Implicit Theories of Ability Achievement Goal
Theory

• (A) I can get more intelligent
• Incremental Theory Intelligence can be improved
  through increased effort and practice
• (B) I can learn new things, but how intelligent
  I am stays pretty much the same
• Entity Theory Intelligence is highly stable and
  not influenced by effort and practice

24
Implicit Theories of Ability Achievement Goal
Theory

• Achievement Goal Orientation
• An a priori framework for how individuals
  construe achievement situations as well as how
  they interpret, evaluate, and act on achievement
  information
• (Ames Archer, 1987, p.409)

25
Achievement Goal Theory

• Achievement Goal Theory (Nicholls, 1989) Two
  Types of Goal Orientations
• Performance Goals (Ego/Competitive/ Outcome
  Orientation)
• Motives to achieve at a particular level, usually
  a socially defined standard emphasis on outcome
  emphasis on performance
• Learning (Mastery) Goals (Task Orientation)
• Motives to increase competence, mastery, or
  skill emphasis on developing the skill or
  technique

26
Achievement Goals areNOT Orthogonal
High
Ego Goal
Low
Low
High
Task Goal
27
Value of a Task Orientation

• Are trait-like
• Lead to strong work ethic, persistence in the
  face of failure, and optimal performance
• Affect motivation and persistence in behaviour
• Can protect from frustration, disappointment, and
  lack of motivation in face of superior others
• ADAPTIVE MOTIVATIONAL PATTERN across many
  situations/contexts

28
Problems with an Ego Orientation

• Are trait-like
• Success judged in relation to others only
• If competence is low, can have difficulty
  maintaining motivation
• May reduce efforts, avoid, make excuses for poor
  performance, cease trying
• May select tasks that are too easy or too hard to
  protect self-worth (Duda and Hall, 2001)
• MALADAPTIVE MOTIVATIONAL PATTERN across many
  situations/contexts

29
Goal Involvement

• Although Achievement Goal Orientations are
  trait-like, some researchers have rejected this
  purely generalised, dispositional approach
• In addition, much of the research has focused on
  task orientation as the individual difference
  that makes adaptive motivational patterns in
  sport (Hodge Petlitchkoff, 2000)
• Researchers have increasingly focused on more
  state like views of achievement goals in
  competitive sport (Harwood, 2002)

30
Goal Involvement

• Harwood (2002) suggests individual difference
  approaches to achievement goals should be
  complimented with goal involvement
• Goal involvement reflects state-like measures
  of task and ego orientations taken during
  competitive situations
• Individual goal states may be the mechanism that
  influences goal orientation at the dispositional
  level
• Also, goal involvement means that goals can be
  changed and manipulated through motivational
  climate (Harwood, 2002)

31
Motivational Climate

• Goal involvement can be manipulated at the
  situational level through motivational climate
• Motivational climate affects the type of goal
  orientation that athletes adopt (Harwood, 2002)
• The climate is produced through the
  communication and organisation of practices and
  training by sport leaders (Ames, 1992)
• Coaches, teachers and sports psychologists can
  therefore facilitate motivation and persistence
  through the psychological climates they create

32
Motivational Climate

• Seifriz et al. (1992) demonstrated that
  basketballers perceiving the motivational climate
  as mastery-oriented are more likely to report
• High enjoyment
• Low tension
• Mastery-oriented climates predict adaptive
  motivational variables
• Attribution of success to effort (Treasure
  Roberts, 1998)
• Enjoyment and satisfaction (Boyd et al., 1995)
• Intrinsic motivation (Petherick Weigand, 2002)
• Goal attainment (Halliburton Weiss, 2002)
• Self-efficacy (Kavussanu Roberts, 1996)
• Problem-focused coping (Ntoumanis et al., 1999)

33
How to Foster a Task/Mastery-Orientated
Motivational Climate

• The coach should
• Reward hard work
• Focus the players attention on the correct
  completion of the skill
• Focus attention on improvement
• Help the players learn to solve problems on their
  own
• Help players recognize that mistakes are a part
  of
• learning
• The coach should avoid
• Negative reinforcement
• Praising only those who perform the best
• Focusing on performance alone
• Encouraging winning all the time

34
Rewards and reinforcement
Tangible
Intangible
Intrinsic
Extrinsic
Trophies Medals Money Sponsorship
Satisfaction Pride Enjoyment Confidence Self-estee
m
Recognition e.g. MVP Feedback Verbal
praise Encouragement Friendship
35
Rewards and reinforcement
Performance
Process
High normative Criterion-referenced Improvement
Participation Effort Behaviours
36
Rewards and reinforcement

• Back to B.F. Skinner (1960)
• Positive reinforcement of desired behaviours
  means that behaviours will continue, e.g. a
  correctly executed sports skill
• Negative reinforcement of undesirable behaviours
  results in cessation of behaviour and avoids
  repetition
• Avoids complexities negative reinforcement may
  undermine psychological variables related to
  motivation and persistence
• Reinforcement does not account for internal
  states and motives of the performer.

37
What is Intrinsic Motivation?

• "Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation to
  engage in an activity for its own sake. People
  who are intrinsically motivated work on tasks
  because they find them enjoyable."
• Pintrich Schunk (1994)
•  
• "Intrinsic motivation is the innate propensity to
  engage ones interests and exercise ones
  capacities, and, in doing so, to seek out and
  master optimal challenges. "
• Reeve, (1995)
•  
• "Intrinsic motivation is choosing to do an
  activity for no compelling reason, beyond the
  satisfaction derived from the activity
  itself--its what motivates us to do something
  when we dont have to do anything."
• Raffini (1995)

38
What is Intrinsic Motivation?

• "Intrinsically-motivated action is that which
  occurs for its own sake, action for which the
  only rewards are the spontaneous affects and
  cognitions that accompany it. Intrinsically
  motivated behaviours require no external supports
  or reinforcements for their sustenance."
• Wlodkowski (1998)
•  Intrinsically-motivated people engage in sport
  to gain a sense of competence, self-determination,
  and autonomy, and persist in the absence of any
  external reinforcement
• Deci and Ryan (1985)

39
Where Does Intrinsic Motivation Come From?

• Theories of motivation must account for
  behaviours that are motivated by rewards that do
  not reduce tissue needs (Eisenberger, 1972)
• Motivational theory must therefore reach beyond
  mere reinforcement and biological drives (Deci
  Ryan, 1985)
• Lewin (1951) was very influential in developing
  cognitive approaches to psychology and
  introducing intention and will as important
  motivational constructs

40
Where Does Intrinsic Motivation Come From?

• Cognitive theories set the stage for the study
  of self-determination by introducing the concepts
  of behavioural decision-making (i.e.,
  intentionality) and control over outcomes (Deci
  Ryan, 1985)
• De Charms (1968) was very influential in
  initiating ideas of intrinsic motivation and
  perceptions of personal causation
• The basic desire to control ones fate to be a
  causal agent rather than be controlled to be
  a pawn - is a contributing factor in all
  motivated behaviour (De Charms, 1968)

41
Cognitive Evaluation Theory Classic Research on
Intrinsic Motivation

• Deci (1971, 1972) College students offered money
  for solving problems, while another group of
  students just solved the problems without any
  external reward? unpaid students spent more time
  solving the problems in free time
• Lepper, Greene, and Nisbett (1973) Effect of
  extrinsic rewards on childrens intrinsic
  interest and motivation

• Method
• ? One group of children asked to draw
• pictures and rewards promised for
• the best drawing (reward condition)
• ? Another group drew pictures,
• without the promise of a reward
• (non- rewarded condition)
• ? Another group drew pictures and
• given a surprise reward (unexpected
• reward condition)

time spent drawing
42
Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation

• Results suggest that IM is undermined by
  extrinsic, tangible rewards (undermining effect
  Deci and Ryan, 1980)
• When a behaviour is controlled by events such as
  rewards, the behaviour only tends to persist so
  longs as the controlling events are present
• Deci and Ryan (1987)

43
Research Trends and the Undermining Effect

• Deci, Koestner and Ryan (1999)
• Meta-analysis of 128 studies on effects of
  rewards on intrinsic motivation
• Average effect size (d) of undermining effect
  for
• Engagement-contingent rewards d -.40
• Completion-contingent rewards d -.36
• Performance-contingent rewards d -.28
• Undermining effect very strong across studies
• Deci, Koestner and Ryan (1999), Psychological
  Bulletin, 6, 627-688.

44
Context, Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation

• Performance contingent rewards and way in which
  it is present can affect intrinsic motivation
• 3 reward presented in 2 conditions
• C1 Performed well
• C2 Performed well, as you should
• Participants in C1 reported more intrinsic
  motivation than C2 Autonomy supportive
  environments most effective and CONTENT of
  feedback is important.

45
Athletes and Rewards

• The Ballon dOr is one of the most prestigious
  individual awards. You cant ignore it. But, with
  no disrespect to anybody, the recognition of my
  peers is more important to me. Doing it for one
  season is easy. To stay at the top, you have to
  get up early and do your work. People are always
  waiting for you to slip up. The more you prove
  the harder it gets. But you have to stay on top.
  I came into football to win titles, not to win
  the Ballon dOr. Even if the reward is enormous
  and I would be happy to win it.
• Thierry Henry, November, 2006

46
Positive Reinforcement and Intrinsic Motivation

• Positive feedback i.e. encouragement, praise is
  important because it enhances COMPETENCE and
  SELF-ESTEEM
• Results are mixed some show that positive
  feedback intrinsic motivations, others say it
  undermines it or has no effect (Vallerand Reid,
  1984)
• Ryan (1982) suggests that positive reinforcement
  can assist ONLY when it is presented in an
  autonomy supportive way avoid controlling
  language like should and must

47
Positive Reinforcement and Intrinsic Motivation
in Sports Contexts

• Vallerand and Reid (1984, 1988) conducted
  experiments using a stabliometer (motor task)
• Task presented in either
• Positive feedback condition It looks like you
  have a very natural ability to balance and it
  shows in your performance
• Negative feedback condition This is an easy
  task but your progress is quite slow. Try to
  perform as well as you can
• Results indicated that IM was higher among those
  in the positive feedback condition and this was
  consistent for males and females

48
Positive Reinforcement and Intrinsic Motivation
in Sports Contexts

• Findings of Vallerand and Reid (1984, 1988) also
  indicate that competence MEDIATES the effect of
  feedback on intrinsic motivation

Competence Feelings
.40
.75
Verbal Feedback
Intrinsic Motivation
.18
.49

• Positive feedback makes athletes feel more
  competence and results in increased IM

49
Cognitive Evaluation Theory

• Intrinsic motivation, context (autonomous-controll
  ing) and content of feedback (competence
  enhancing-not enhancing) combined to form a theory

External locus of causality
Intrinsic motivation decreases
Cause of behaviour lies outside person
Controlling Aspect of Reward
Intrinsic motivation increases
Cause of behaviour lies inside person
Internal locus of causality
Positive competence information
Increased perceived competence
Intrinsic motivation increases
Informational Aspect of Reward
Intrinsic motivation decreases
Decreased perceived competence
Negative competence information
50
Cognitive Evaluation Theory

• How the recipient perceives rewards is critical
  in determining whether their intrinsic motivation
  will be enhanced or diminished (Deci Ryan,
  1985)
• Rewards that are perceived to control an
  athletes behaviour (i.e., perceived as emanating
  outside a person) or suggest that an individual
  is not competent decrease intrinsic motivation
• Rewards that are perceived as emphasising the
  informational aspect (i.e., perceived as coming
  from inside the individual) or provide positive
  feedback that supports competence increase
  intrinsic motivation

51
Cognitive Evaluation Theory and the Functional
Significance of Events
PERCEIVED LOCUS OF CAUSALITY
EXTERNAL
INTERNAL
COMPETENCE INFORMATION
CONTROLLING
INFORMATIONAL
EFFECT ON INTRINSIC MOTIVATION
ENHANCES INTRINSIC MOTIVATION
DECREASES INTRINSIC MOTIVATION
SOURCES OF INFORMATION

• PARENTAL SUPPORT
• POSITIVE FEEDBACK
• TASK NON-CONTINGENT
• REWARDS

• PARENTAL PRESSURE
• TANGIBLE REWARDS
• TASK OR PERFORMANCE
• CONTINGENT REWARDS

52
Increasing Intrinsic Motivation

• Provide successful experiences
• Extrinsic/tangible rewards should be
  non-contingent on performance but informational
• Verbal and nonverbal praise (positive feedback)
• Vary content of training/practice
• Involve participants in decision making (choice)
• Realistic, personal, negotiated, goal setting
• (Vallerand, 2007 Ryan Deci, 2007)