1. ????? ???? ???? (strict egalitarianism)

1
???? ??? ?????? ? ????? ????? (2)(???? ?????
??????)

• ???? ????? ?????? ? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ?????
  ???? ? ????? ?????
• - ????? ???? ????? ???? ???? ??
  ?????? ????
• ???? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ????
  ?? ????
• 1. ????? ????? ???????? ?? ????? ??
  ???? ??? ????? ? ???? ? ???? ?...
• 2. ???? ????? ???? ? ????? ?????
  ??? ?????? ? ??????? ???? ? ????? ?????????
  ?.....
• 3.??????? ??? ????? ????? ???? ?
  ?????? ? ????? ???? ? .....
• ?? ????? ????? ??????? ?? ??? ???? ?????? ?????
  ?? ?????? ? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ?? ????
  
• ???? ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ??
• 1. ????? ???? ???? (strict
  egalitarianism)
• 2. ??? ????? (the difference principle)
• 3. ???? ????? ?? ????? (resources based
  principles)
• 4. ???? ????? ?? ???? (welfare based
  principles)
• 5. ???? ????? ?? ??????? (desert based
  principles)
• 6. ???? ????? ?????? (libertarian
  principles)
• 7. ???? ???????? (feminist principles)

2
Strict Egalitarianism

• One of the simplest principles of distributive
  justice is that of strict or radical equality
• The principle says that every person should have
  the same level of material goods and services
• The principle is most commonly justified on the
  grounds that people are owed equal respect and
  that equality in material goods and services is
  the best way to give effect to this ideal
• The two main problems with this simple principle
  
• 1. the index problem the construction of
  appropriate indices for measurement
• 2. the time frames problem the specification
  of time frames
• There are a number of direct moral criticisms
  made of strict equality principles

3
the index problem

• The strict equality principle says that there
  should be the same level of material goods and
  services
• The problem is how to specify and measure levels
• Two ways of solving the index problem in the
  strict equality
• 1. to specify the same bundle of material
  goods and services for everyone
• 2. to specify money as an index for the value
  of material goods and services

4
the same bundle of material goods and services
for everyone

• To specify that everyone should have the same
  bundle of material goods and services rather than
  the same level (so everyone would have 4 oranges,
  6 apples, 1 bike, etc.)
• The main problem with this solution
• there will be many other allocations of
  material goods and services which will make some
  people better off without making anybody else
  worse off
• As a consequence
• - requiring identical bundles will make
  virtually everybody materially worse off than
  they would be under an alternative allocation
• - so specifying that everybody must have the
  same bundle of goods does not seem to be a
  satisfactory way of solving the index problem
• -Some index for measuring the value of goods
  and services is required.

5
money as an index for the value of material goods
and services

• It is an imperfect index and its pitfalls are
  well-documented in most economics textbooks
• Moreover, once the goods to be allocated are
  extended beyond material ones to include
  opportunities, etc. it needs to be combined with
  other indices.
• - For instance, John Rawls' index of
  primary goods

6
the time frames problem

• to specify when the pattern of distribution is
  required
• One version of the principle of strict equality
  requires that all people should have the same
  wealth at some initial point, after which people
  are free to use their wealth in whatever way they
  choose.
• Principles specifying initial distributions after
  which the pattern need not be preserved are
  commonly called starting-gate principles
• The most common form of strict equality principle
  specifies that income (measured in terms of
  money) should be equal in each time-frame.
• - though even this may lead to significant
  disparities in wealth
• if variations in savings are permitted.

7
the moral criticisms made of strict equality
principles

• they unduly restrict freedom
• they do not give best effect to equal respect for
  persons
• they conflict with what people deserve
• - conflict with Desert-Based Principles
• the most common criticism is a welfare-based one
  
• - that everyone can be materially better off if
  incomes are not strictly equal

8
The difference principle

• The wealth of an economy is not a fixed amount
  from one period to the next. More wealth can be
  produced
• The most common way of producing more wealth is
  to have a system where those who are more
  productive earn greater incomes
• The most widely discussed theory of distributive
  justice in the past three decades has been that
  proposed by John Rawls
• - John Rawls in A Theory of Justice, (Rawls
  1971), and Political Liberalism,
• (Rawls 1993) proposes the two principles
  of distributive justice
• the main criticisms from the difference principle

9
the main criticisms from the difference principle

• Advocates of strict equality argue that
  inequalities permitted by the Difference
  Principle are unacceptable even if they do
  benefit the least advantaged
• - relative position of the least
  advantaged is more important than their absolute
  position
• The Utilitarian objection to the Difference
  Principle is that it does not maximize utility
• Libertarians object that the Difference Principle
  involves unacceptable infringements on liberty.
  For instance, the Difference Principle may
  require redistributive taxation to the poor, and
  Libertarians commonly object that such taxation
  involves the immoral taking of just holdings.
• The Difference Principle is also criticized as a
  primary distributive principle on the grounds
  that it mostly ignores claims that people deserve
  certain economic benefits in light of their
  actions

10
resources based principles

• Resource-based principles (also called Resource
  Egalitarianism) prescribe equality of resources
• - Interestingly, resource-based principles do
  not normally prescribe a
• patterned outcome - the idea being that
  the outcomes are determined by
• people's free use of their resources
• Resource-theorists claim that the Difference
  Principle is
• a. insufficiently ambition-sensitive
• b. insufficiently endowment-sensitive
• The most prominent Resource-based theory,
  developed by Ronald Dworkin, (Dworkin 1981a,
  1981b).
• The moral criticisms

11
insufficiently ambition-sensitive

• that provided people have equal resources they
  should live with the consequences of their
  choices.
• - for instance, that people who choose to
  work hard to earn more income
• should not be required to subsidize those
  choosing more leisure and hence
• less income.

12
insufficiently endowment-sensitive

• While part of Rawls' motivation for the
  Difference principle is that people have unequal
  endowments, resource-theorists explicitly
  emphasize this feature of their theory though
  they differ on which endowments are relevant to
  questions of distributive justice
• - They agree that, ideally, social
  circumstances over which people have no control
  should not adversely affect life prospects or
  earning capacities
• Some resource-theorists further argue that, for
  the same sorts of reasons, unequal natural
  endowments should attract compensation.
• - For instance, people born with handicaps,
  ill-health, or low levels of natural talents have
  not brought these circumstances upon themselves
  and hence, should not be disadvantaged in their
  life prospects.

13
Dworkin theory

• The peoples begin with equal resources but end up
  with unequal economic benefits as a result of
  their own choices.
• - what constitutes a just material
  distribution is to be determined by the
• result of a thought experiment
  designed to model fair distribution.
• - Dworkin, add to system of equal
  resources and ambition-sensitivity, a
• sensitivity to inequalities in natural
  endowments.
• - he notes that natural inequalities are
  not distributed according to
• people's choices, nor are they
  justified by reference to some other
• morally relevant fact about people.
• -Dworkin proposes a hypothetical
  compensation scheme in which he
• supposes that people do not know their
  own natural endowments.

14
The moral criticisms

• It is not at all clear what would constitute an
  implementation of Resource-based theories and
  their variants in a real economy.
• It seems impossible to measure differences in
  people's natural talents - unfortunately,
  people's talents do not neatly divide into the
  natural and developed categories.
• A system of special assistance to the physically
  and mentally handicapped and to the ill would be
  a partial implementation of the compensation
  system, but most natural inequalities would be
  left untouched by such assistance while the
  theory requires that such inequalities be
  compensated for.
• It is simply not clear how to implement equality
  of resources in a complex economy and hence
  despite its theoretical advantages, it is
  difficult to see it as a practical improvement on
  the Difference Principle.

15
desert based principles

• that people deserve certain economic benefits in
  light of their actions.
• -the various forms of welfarism treat people
  as mere containers for well-being, rather than
  purposeful beings, responsible for their actions
  and creative in their environments.
• The different desert-based principles of
  distribution differ primarily according to what
  they identify as the basis for deserving.
• Most contemporary proposals for desert-bases fit
  into one of three broad categories
• 1. Contribution
• People should be rewarded for their work
  activity according to
• the value of their contribution to the
  social product. (Miller
• 1976, Miller 1989, Riley)
• 2. Effort
• - People should be rewarded according to
  the effort they expend in their work
• activity
• 3.Compensation
• - People should be rewarded according to
  the costs they incur in their work activity.
  (Sadurski, Lamont 1997)

16
libertarian principles

• For Libertarians, just outcomes are those arrived
  at by the separate just actions of individuals a
  particular distributive pattern is not required
  for justice. Robert Nozick has advanced this
  version of Libertarianism (Nozick 1974), and is
  its most well-known contemporary advocate.
• Nozick proposes a 3-part "Entitlement Theory
• the principles of justice in acquisition
• A person who acquires a holding in
  accordance with the principle of
• justice in acquisition is entitled to
  that holding.
• 2. the principles of justice in in transfer
• A person who acquires a holding in
  accordance with the principle of justice
• in transfer, from someone else entitled
  to the holding, is entitled to the
• holding.
• 3. No one is entitled to a holding except by
  (repeated) applications of (a) and (b).
• The complete principle of distributive justice
  would say simply that a distribution is just if
  everyone is entitled to the holdings they possess
  under the distribution. (Nozick, p.151)

17
feminist principles

• The distributive principles so far outlined, with
  the exception of strict egalitarianism, could be
  classified as liberal theories - they both
  inform, and are the product of, the liberal
  democracies which have emerged over the last two
  centuries.
• John Stuart Mill in The Subjection of Women
  (1869) gives one of the clearest early feminist
  critiques of the political and distributive
  structures of the emerging liberal democracies.
• His writings provide the starting point for many
  contemporary liberal feminists.
• Feminists who follow Mill believe that a proper
  recognition of the position of women in society
  requires that women be given equal and the same
  rights as men have, and that these primarily
  protect their liberty and their status as equal
  persons under the law.
• Thus, government regulation should not prevent
  women from competing on equal terms with men in
  educational, professional, marketplace and
  political institutions.
• From the point of view of other feminisms, the
  liberal feminist position is a conservative one,
  in the sense that it requires the proper
  inclusion for women of the rights, protections,
  and opportunities previously secured for men,
  rather than a fundamental change to the
  traditional liberal position.
• The problem for women, on this view, is not
  liberalism but the failure of society and the
  State to properly instantiate liberal principles.

18
John Stuart Mill The Subjection of Women (1869)

• Mill argued that the principles associated with
  the developing liberalism of his time required
  equal political status for women.
• The principles Mill explicitly mentions include
  
• 1. a rejection of the aristocracy of birth,
• 2.equal opportunity in education and in the
  marketplace,
• 3. equal rights to hold property,
• 4. a rejection of the man as the legal head
  of the household,
• 5. and equal rights to political
  participation.

19
Welfare-Based Principles

• Welfare-based principles are motivated by the
  idea that what is of primary moral importance is
  the level of welfare of people
• Resources, equality, desert-claims, or liberty
  are only valuable in so far as they increase
  welfare, so that all distributive questions
  should be settled according to which distribution
  maximizes welfare
• However, maximizes welfare is imprecise, so
  welfare theorists propose particular welfare
  functions to maximize. The welfare functions
  proposed vary enormously both on what will count
  as welfare and the weighting system for that
  welfare
• Historically, Utilitarians have used the term
  utility rather than welfare and utility has
  been defined variously as pleasure, happiness, or
  preference-satisfaction. So, for instance, the
  principle for distributing economic benefits for
  Preference Utilitarians is to distribute them so
  as to maximize preference-satisfaction.
• The welfare function for such a principle has a
  simple theoretical form it involves choosing
  that distribution maximizing the arithmetic sum
  of all satisfied preferences (unsatisfied
  preferences being negative), weighted for the
  intensity of those preferences.