The Dujiangyan Irrigation System

1
Chapter 4
The Dujiangyan Irrigation System
2
4. Natural and Environmental Resources

• 4.1 Natural resources
• 4.2 Energy production
• 4.3 Environmental quality
• 4.4 Chinese environmental policy
• 4.5 Policy implications

3
Keywords

• natural resource,
• minerals,
• energy,
• resource consumption,
• spatial disequilibrium,
• sustainable development,
• pollution,
• greenhouse gas (GHG),
• environmental protection

4
4.1 Natural resources

• 4.1.1 Land and agriculture
• 4.1.2 Mineral resources
• 4.1.3 Water scarcity

5
Top five provinces in agriculture

• Hunan, Sichuan, Jiangsu, Hubei, and Guangdong for
  rice
• Henan, Shandong, Jiangsu, Hebei, and Sichuan for
  wheat
• Shandong, Jilin, Hebei, Sichuan, and Henan for
  maize
• Heilongjiang, Henan, Jilin, Shandong, and Anhui
  for soybean
• Shandong, Hebei, Henan, Hubei, and Jiangsu for
  cotton
• Shandong, Sichuan, Anhui, Jiangsu, and Henan for
  rapeseeds
• Henan, Yunnan, Shandong, Guizhou, and Hunan for
  tobacco
• Zhejiang, Hunan, Sichuan, Anhui, and Fujian for
  tea
• Shandong, Hebei, Guangdong, Sichuan, and Liaoning
  for fruits

6
Table 4.1 Major metal reserves of China and the
world
Million tons of contents Million tons of contents Million tons of contents Per capita kg Per capita kg Per capita kg
Item China (1) World (2) (1)/(2) () China (3) World (4) (3)/(4) ()
Bauxite 150 21 559 0.70 128.2 3934.1 3.26
Copper 3.00 321.00 0.93 2.56 58.58 4.37
Iron ore 3 500 64 648 5.41 2992 11797 25.36
Lead 6.00 70.44 8.52 5.13 12.85 39.92
Manganese 13.6 812.8 1.67 11.62 148.32 7.83
Molybdenum 0.55 6.10 9.02 0.47 1.11 42.34
Nickel 0.73 48.66 1.50 0.62 8.88 6.98
Tin 1.50 5.93 25.30 1.28 1.08 118.52
Titanium 30.0 288.6 10.40 25.64 52.66 48.68
Tungsten 1.05 2.35 44.68 0.90 0.43 209.30
Vanadium 0.61 4.27 14.29 0.52 0.78 66.67
Zinc 5.00 143.90 3.47 4.27 36.26 16.26
7
Major resource-rich provinces (in order of
reserves)

• Argentum (Ag) Jiangxi, Guangdong, Guangxi,
  Yunnan, Hunnan
• Bauxite Shanxi, Henan, Shandong, Guangxi,
  Guizhou
• Bismuth (Bi) Hunan, Guangdong, Jiangxi, Yunnan,
  Inner Mongolia
• Chromium (Cr) Tibet, Inner Mongolia, Gansu
• Coal Shanxi, Inner Mongolia, Shaanxi, Guizhou,
  Ningxia
• Collat. (Co) Gansu, Yunnan, Shandong, Hebei,
  Shanxi
• Copper (Cu) Jiangxi, Tibet, Yunnan, Gansu, Anhui
  
• Gold (Au) Shandong, Jiangxi, Heilongjiang,
  Jilin, Hubei
• Hydragyrum (Hg) Guizhou, Shaanxi, Hunan,
  Sichuan, Yunnan
• Iron (Fe) ore Liaoning, Sichuan, Hebei, Shanxi,
  Anhui
• Kaolin (Ka) Hunan, Jiangsu, Fujian, Guangdong,
  Liaoning

8
(Contd)

• Lead (Pb) Yunnan, Guangdong, Hunan, Inner
  Mongolia, Jiangxi
• Manganese (Mn) Guangxi, Hunan, Guizhou,
  Liaoning, Sichuan
• Molybdenum (Mo) Henan, Jilin, Shaanxi, Shandong,
  Jiangxi
• Natural gas Sichuan, Liaoning, Henan, Xinjiang,
  Hebei, Tianjin
• Nickel (Ni) Gansu, Yunnan, Jilin, Sichuan, Hubei
  
• Petroleum Heilongjiang, Shandong, Liaoning,
  Hebei, Xinjiang
• Platinum (Pt) Gansu, Yunnan, Sichuan
• Silica stone (SiO2) Qinghai, Beijing, Liaoning,
  Gansu, Sichuan
• Stibium (Sb) Hunan, Guangxi, Guizhou, Yunnan
• Tantalum (Ta) Jiangxi, Inner Mongolia,
  Guangdong, Hunan, Sichuan
• Tin (Sn) Guangxi, Yunnan, Hunan, Guangdong,
  Jiangxi
• Titanium (Ti) Sichuan, Hebei, Shaanxi, Shanxi
• Tungsten (WO3) Hunan, Jiangxi, Henan, Fujian,
  Guangxi
• Vanadium (V) Sichuan, Hunan, Gansu, Hubei, Anhui
  
• Zinc (Zn) Yunnan, Inner Mongolia, Guangdong,
  Hunan, Gansu

9
Table 4.2 Composition of energy resources, by
region and by type of energy ()
Region Coal Hydropowera Petroleumb All energyc
North 64.0 (98.2) 1.8 (1.3) 14.4 (0.5) 43.9 (100.0)
Northeast 3.1 (54.6) 1.8 (14.2) 48.3 (31.2) 3.8 (100.0)
East 6.5 (72.9) 4.4 (22.5) 18.2 (4.6) 6.0 (100.0)
Central South 3.7 (44.5) 9.5 (51.8) 2.5 (3.7) 5.6 (100.0)
Southwest 10.7 (25.2) 70.0 (74.7) 2.5 (0.1) 28.6 (100.0)
Northwest 12.0 (66.7) 12.5 (31.3) 14.0 (2.0) 12.1 (100.0)
China 100.0 (85.9) 100.0 (13.1) 100.0 (1.0) 100.0 (100.0)
Notes (1) The geographical scopes of the great
regions are defined in Figure 2.1. (2) Figures in
parentheses are energy structures. (a) The
theoretical reserves multiplied by 100 years. (b)
Includes natural gas and shale oil. (c) Standard
coal equivalent conversion rates are as 0.714 t/t
for coal, 1.43 t/t for petroleum, 1.33 t/1000m3
for natural gas, 0.143 t/t for oil shale, and 350
g/kWh for hydropower.
10
(Source The Ministry of Water Conservation of
China and author) Figure 4.1 Regional differences
of annual precipitation in mainland China
11
4.2 Energy production

• 4.2.1 Coal
• 4.2.2 Petroleum and natural gas
• 4.2.3 Clean/green energy

12
Source Central Intelligence Agency (Washington,
DC, 1983) and author. Figure 4.2 The distribution
of minerals and energy resources in mainland
China
13
Notes (1) Each of Guangdong, Hainan, Jilin,
Guangxi, Jiangsu, Hubei, Beijing, Tianjin,
Fujian, Zhejiang, Tibet, and Shanghai is less
than 1. (2) Sichuan and Chongqing are estimated
by the author based on their total reserves and
land areas proportionally. Source Sun (1987, pp.
4-8) and author. Figure 4.3 Spatial distribution
of major mineral resources in China
14
Figure 4.4 Chinas energy production structure,
1952-2009 Source NBS, various years.
15
Source BP Statistical Review of World Energy,
2011. Figure 4.5 Chinas oil production and
consumption (million tones), 1965-2010
16
4.3 Environmental quality

• 4.3.1 Air
• 4.3.2 Water
• 4.3.3 Land
• 4.3.4 Deforestation and desertification

17
Table 4.3 Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, China
and USA
Item China China USA USA
1990 2006 1990 2006
GDP (billion )a 372.4 2,626.3 5,672.6 13,194.7
GHGs (million ton) 2,524 6,200 5,163 5,800
GHGs/POP (ton/person) 2.18 4.72 21.0 19.4
GHGs/LA (ton/km²) 262.9 645.8 551.6 619.7
GHGs/GDP (kg/US) 6.78 2.36 0.91 0.44
Notes GDPgross national product,
POPpopulation, LAland area. (a) Measured in
exchange rates (for China) and in current prices
(for China and USA). Sources WRI (1992), NEAA
(2007) and author.
18
Source EIA (2011). Figure 4.6 Chinas carbon
dioxide emissions from consumption
19
4.4 Chinese environmental policy

• 4.4.1 About sustainable development
• 4.4.2 Chinas commitments to the environment
• 4.4.3 Unresolved issues

20
Table 4.4 Shares in consumption of primary
commodities for China, India and USA ()
Commodity Commodity China India USA
Metals 2005 Aluminum 22.5 (1) 3.0 (8) 19.4 (2)
Metals 2005 Copper 21.6 (1) 2.3 (11) 13.8 (2)
Metals 2005 Lead 25.7 (1) 1.3 (15) 19.4 (2)
Metals 2005 Nickel 15.2 (1) 0.9 (17) 9.5 (3)
Metals 2005 Tin 33.3 (1) 2.2 (7) 12.1 (2)
Metals 2005 Zinc 28.6 (1) 3.1 (8) 9.0 (2)
Metals 2005 Iron ore 29.0 (1) 4.8 (5) 4.7 (6)
Metals 2005 Steel production 31.5 (1) 3.5 (7) 8.5 (3)
Energy 2003 Coal 32.9 (1) 7.1 (3) 20.6 (2)
Energy 2003 Oil 7.4 (2) 3.4 (7) 25.3 (1)
Energy 2003 Total primary energy 12.6 (2) 3.6 (5) 23.4 (1)
Energy 2003 Electricity generation 11.4 (2) 3.8 (5) 24.3 (1)
Agriculture 2003 Wheat 15.2 (1) 13.5 (2) 5.4 (4)
Agriculture 2003 Rice 29.7 (1) 21.4 (2) 1.0 (12)
Agriculture 2003 Maize 17.0 (2) 2.2 (6) 32.5 (1)
Agriculture 2003 Soybeans 19.2 (2) 3.7 (5) 24.0 (1)
Agriculture 2003 Soy oil 24.4 (2) 6.4 (4) 25.7 (1)
Agriculture 2003 Palm oil 15.8 (1) 15.3 (2) 0.6 (37)
Agriculture 2003 Sugar 6.6 (3) 15.2 (1) 12.5 (2)
Agriculture 2003 Tea 14.4 (2) 17.5 (1) 3.8 (7)
Agriculture 2003 Coffee 0.4 (45) 0.8 (27) 16.8 (1)
Agriculture 2003 Cotton 31.2 (1) 12.8 (2) 6.9 (5)
Agriculture 2003 Rubber 23.5 (1) 8.4 (4) 12.9 (2)
21
Notes denote positive relations ? denote
negative relation ? denotes causal
direction. Figure 4.7 Economic, environmental and
health relations
22
The environmental Kuznets curve (EKC)
23
Chinas double-track environmental management
regime

• Provinces and autonomous regions ? prefecture
  or municipalities ? counties and urban
  districts ? non-state and private enterprises
  and
• State commissions ? ministries and other
  government branches and state corporations at
  ministry and semi-ministry levels ? state-owned
  enterprises.

24
Law of Mineral Resources of the PRC (kuangcan
ziyuan fa)

• Problems

Article 44 says

• (i) Which kinds of extraction methods should be
  defined as destructive to mineral resources?
• (ii) How to set up the standard of the serious
  damages to resources?
• (iii) How to calculate the loss of damages?
• (iv) How to determine the amount of additional
  charges?
• (v) What should be defined as the most serious
  situation?

• ... those who use destructive methods to extract
  mineral resources should refund the loss of
  damages and, if the resources have been
  seriously damaged, be additionally charged till
  the withdrawal of their certificates for mining
  permission at the most serious situation

25
Case Study 4

• The South-North Water Transfer Project

26
Figure 4.8 The three routes of the South-North
Water Transfer Project Source Author.
27
Table 4.5 The basic indicators of the South-North
Water Transfer Project
Annual diverted volume of water (billion cu.m.) Estimated costs (billion yuan) Estimated costs (billion yuan) Estimated costs (billion yuan)
Annual diverted volume of water (billion cu.m.) Stage I (2000-10) Stage II (2010-20) Long-range (2020-50)
Eastern Route 14.8 17.9 11.3 --
Middle Route 13.0 23.4 31.5 --
Western Route 17.0 -- 0-20 230-250
Total 44.8 41.3 42.8-62.8 230-250
28
Chapter conclusion The vast size and
diversified natural conditions of China have
generated many regional differences in terms of
climate, geography, soil fertility and other
natural resource endowments. This in turn means
that social and economic developments vary from
region to region. In particular, South and East
regions have natural advantages for agriculture
over the Northwest region. Except for a few
deposits of non-ferrous metals, minerals and
energy resources are much richer in the North and
West areas than in the Southern coastal area. One
of the most important implications of this
chapter is that the unevenly distributed and
coal-dominated energy structure is the major
obstacle to Chinese industrialization and
sustainable development. All of these factors
have inevitably resulted in great spatial
economic disequilibria and disparities in China.
This chapter also discusses Chinas worsening
environmental problems.
29
Suggested reading

• Almond, Douglas, Yuyu Chen, Michael Greenstone
  and Hongbin Li (2009). Winter Heating or Clean
  Air? Unintended Impacts of China's Huai River
  Policy, American Economic Review, Volume 99,
  Issue 2.
• Cao, Jing (2008). Measuring Green Productivity
  Growth for China's Manufacturing Sectors
  19912000, Asian Economic Journal, Volume 21,
  Issue 4, pp. 425451.
• Chen, Shaofeng (2011). Has China's Foreign
  Energy Quest Enhanced Its Energy Security? The
  China Quarterly, Volume 207, pp. 600 - 625.
• Cho, Mun Young (2010). On the Edge between the
  People and the Population Ethnographic
  Research on the Minimum Livelihood Guarantee,
  The China Quarterly, Volume 202, pp. 20 - 37.
• Haglund, Dan (2009). In It for the Long Term?
  Governance and Learning among Chinese Investors
  in Zambia's Copper Sector, The China Quarterly,
  Volume 199, pp. 627 646.

30
Contd

• Jiang, Wenran (2009). Fuelling the Dragon
  China's Rise and Its Energy and Resources
  Extraction in Africa, The China Quarterly,
  Volume 199, pp. 585 - 609.
• Li, Wanxin (2011). Self-Motivated versus Forced
  Disclosure of Environmental Information in China
  A Comparative Case Study of the Pilot Disclosure
  Programs, The China Quarterly, Volume 206, pp.
  331 351.
• Li, Yu-wai, Bo Miao and Graeme Lang (2011). The
  Local Environmental State in China A Study of
  County-Level Cities in Suzhou, The China
  Quarterly, Volume 205, pp. 115 132.
• Mead, Robert W. and Victor Brajer (2008).
  Environmental Cleanup and Health Gains from
  Beijing's Green Olympics, The China Quarterly,
  Volume 194, pp. 275 - 293.
• Shen, J. (2006). A simultaneous estimation of
  Environmental Kuznets Curve Evidence from
  China, China Economic Review, Volume 17, Issue
  4, pp. 383-394.

31
Contd

• Stalley, Phillip and Dongning Yang (2006). An
  Emerging Environmental Movement in China? The
  China Quarterly, Volume 186, pp. 333 - 356.
• Stern, Rachel E. (2011). From Dispute to
  Decision Suing Polluters in China, The China
  Quarterly, Volume 206, pp. 294 - 312.
• Sullivan, Jonathan and Lei Xie (2009).
  Environmental Activism, Social Networks and the
  Internet, The China Quarterly, Volume 198, pp.
  422 - 432.
• Tong, Yanqi (2007). Bureaucracy Meets the
  Environment Elite Perceptions in Six Chinese
  Cities, The China Quarterly, Volume 189, pp. 100
  - 121.
• Zhang, Tao (2010). Environmental Performance
  Assessment of China's Manufacturing, Asian
  Economic Journal, Volume 24, Issue 1, pp. 4568.