Participant Observation

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Participant Observation
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Criteria for Trustworthiness

• Credibility assesses the degree to which the
  report rings true to the participants studied.
• Dependability assesses the degree to which the
  research process is trackable.
• Confirmability assesses the connection between
  the conclusions drawn and the sources of data
  which support those conclusions.
• Transferability describes the level of
  description necessary to allow readers to
  determine whether the qualitative report can be
  applied to other topics or settings of interest.

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Dell Hymes SPEAKING (1972)Heuristic Framework
Ends
Key
Situation
Instrumentality
Genres
Participants
Norms of Interaction
Act Characteristics
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The Choreography of Participant Observation
(Janesick, 1994)

• Like dance, researchers must be flexible and
  adaptive to the dynamic process
• There are three stages to participant
  observation
• The warm-up period
• The floor exercise stage
• The cool-down stage

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The Warm-up Period

• The researcher begins the process with general
  questions of interest these questions will
  evolve throughout the research process.
• The literature review is written to achieve
  theoretical sensitivity.
• The researcher initiates a reflexive journal and
  a journal for field notes.
• The researcher selects the field site.
• The researcher decides the type of role they will
  assume.
• The researcher seeks to gain and sustain access
  to the site.

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Roles of the Researcher

• Observation Strategies
• Complete-participant role
• Participant-as-observer role
• Observer-as-participant
• Complete observer
• Degree of Involvement
• Complete Member
• Active Member
• Peripheral Member

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Gaining and Sustaining Access

• The researcher needs to carefully assess the
  nature of informed consent given her goals, her
  desired role, and the community of interest.
• A gatekeeper (formal or informal) will be key to
  gaining access to your site a formal gatekeeper
  can often offer consent for you to study her
  organization.
• Sponsors help you to establish relationships with
  other community members by taking an interest in
  your project.
• Informants are those members of the community
  that you go to for information about the
  community and for conducting member checks.
• Prolonged engagement in the field helps to ensure
  the greater credibility of the study.

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The Floor Exercise Period

• Sampling
• Constructing Field Notes and Visual Records
• Making ethical decisions
• Triangulating sources of data
• Sustaining elasticity

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Sampling Participants, Activities, and Scenes

• Maximum-variation sampling
• Typical case sampling
• Snowball sampling
• Theoretical construct sampling
• Critical case sampling
• Convenience sampling

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Constructing Field Notes

• Do not trust your memory take notes during or
  soon after your observations take place.
• Take notes in stages
• First, take initial notes to help you recall
  observations.
• Second, take detailed and comprehensive notes
  filling in the initial notes.
• Field notes should include detailed descriptions,
  initial analysis as well as reflexive notes on
  the research process
• Field notes should be chronological
• The content of field notes will vary according to
  the purpose of the study, but should include the
  who, what, when, where, and why of the
  observations.

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Triangulating Sources of Data(Denzin, 1978)

• Use multiple and different sources of data
• Use multiple and different methods of research
• Use multiple researchers
• Use multiple theoretical perspectives

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The Iterative Process of Participant Observation
Remain Elastic
Observe
Refine Interpretations
Interpret
Member Checks
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The Cool-Down Period

• Data gathering is complete when saturation has
  been achieved.
• When data are repetitive and interpretations
  refined, saturation has been achieved.
• In order to determine saturation, the researcher
  must analyze data as it is collected.
• The researcher must keep her relationships with
  participants in mind when deciding how to leave
  the field.
• Additional member checks may be necessary as the
  researcher continues to write the research report.