Topic 2

1
Topic 2 Urban Transportation and Energy

• A Transportation and Energy Consumption
• B Energy, Transportation and Urban Form
• C Alternative Sources of Energy for Urban
  Transportation

2
Conditions of Usage

• For personal and classroom use only
• Excludes any other forms of communication such as
  conference presentations, published reports and
  papers.
• No modification and redistribution permitted
• Cannot be published, in whole or in part, in any
  form (printed or electronic) and on any media
  without consent.
• Citation
• Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics
  Geography, Hofstra University.

3
Transportation and Energy Consumption
A

• 1. Energy in a Mobile World
• 2. Utility Factors
• 3. Petroleum Dependency
• 4. Combustion of Hydrocarbons
• 5. Energy Consumption

4
Energy in a Mobile World
A-1

• Nature
• Energy is movement or the possibility of creating
  movement.
• Exists as potential (stored) and kinetic (used)
  forms.
• Conversion of potential to kinetic.
• Movement can be ordered (mechanical energy) or
  disordered (thermal energy).
• Major tendency is to move from order to disorder.
• Importance
• Human activities are closely dependant to the
  usage of several forms and sources of energy.
• Development processes have increased demand and
  reliance on energy.
• Human activities are strongly supported by the
  usage of energy.
• Overcoming territories in a global economy
  requires a substantial amount of work.
• Work related to transfers of goods, people and
  information has increased significantly.
• Growing share of transportation in the total
  energy spent.

5
Sources of Energy
A-1

• Chemical
• Fossil fuels (Combustion)
• Nuclear
• Uranium (Fission of atoms)

Non-Renewable
Renewable

• Chemical
• Muscular (Oxidization)
• Nuclear
• Geothermal (Conversion)
• Fusion (Fusion of hydrogen)
• Gravity
• Tidal, hydraulic (Kinetic)
• Indirect Solar
• Biomass (Photosynthesis)
• Wind (Pressure differences)
• Direct Solar
• Photovoltaic cell (Conversion)

Energy
6
Energy Content of some Fossil Fuels (in MJ/kg)
A-1
7
World Fossil Fuel Consumption, 1950-1998 (in
million of tons of equivalent oil)
A-1
8
Energy in a Mobile World
A-1

• Energy exists in various forms
• Mechanical, thermal, chemical, electrical,
  radiant, and atomic and are all interconvertible.
• Forms of energy come from sources qualified as
  renewable and non-renewable.
• Renewability
• Based upon the scale of human events and if the
  source can be replaced during that period.
• Wood is a renewable biomass energy source as long
  as adequate conditions are kept for reserves to
  be replenished.
• Rates of exploitation / deforestation in a number
  of areas are so high that biomass may be
  considered as a non-renewable source in those
  circumstances.

9
Energy in a Mobile World
A-1

• Choice of an energy source
• Depend on a number of utility factors.
• Factors that favors a specific source.
• Currently favoring the usage of fossil fuels,
  notably petroleum.
• Energy and work
• Many efforts have been done to alleviate work.
• Creating more work performed by extra-human
  agents like motors and the usage of even more
  energy.
• Modification of the environment
• Rendering space suitable for human activities.
• Clearing land for agriculture.
• Modifying the hydrography (irrigation).
• Establishing distribution infrastructure.
• Constructing and conditioning (temperature and
  light) enclosed structures.

10
Energy in a Mobile World
A-1

• Appropriation and processing resources
• Extraction of agricultural products from the
  biomass and raw materials (minerals, oil, lumber,
  etc.) for human needs.
• Disposal of wastes, which are in an advanced
  industrial society very work intensive to safely
  dispose.
• Modifies products from the biomass, raw materials
  and goods to manufacture according to economic
  needs.
• Over the last 200 years, work related to
  processing was considerably mechanized (e.g.
  robotized assembly lines).

11
Energy in a Mobile World
A-1

• Transfer
• Movements of freight, people and information from
  one place to another.
• Attenuate the spatial inequities in the location
  of resources by overcoming distance.
• The less energy costs per ton or passenger -
  kilometer, the less importance has transfers.
• Overcoming territories in a global economy
  requires a substantial amount of work.
• Work related to transfers of goods, people and
  information has increased significantly.
• Growing share of transportation in the total
  energy spent.
• The United States is an economy using massive
  amounts of energy in the transport sector.

12
Energy in a Mobile World
A-1

• United States
• Huge consumer of energy.
• Pattern of consumption is strongly linked to the
  attributes of the American economy and territory.
• Accounts for 5 of the global population, but for
  25 of the produced energy.
• Transportation accounts for about 24 of all the
  energy used in the United States.

13
Demand for Refined Petroleum Products by Sector
in the United States, 1970-1998 (in Quadrillion
BTUs)
A-1
14
Evolution of Energy Sources
A-1
15
Energy in a Mobile World
A-1

• 15th Century
• Traditional societies.
• Rely only on muscular and biomass sources to
  answer their energy needs.
• Mainly the characteristics of the Middle Ages and
  other previous historical periods.
• Mid 19th Century
• Beginning of the Industrial revolution.
• Considerably modified energy sources.
• Greater reliance on coal.
• Early 20th Century
• Middle of the industrial revolution.
• Coal is dominant source of energy.
• Gradual shift towards higher energy content
  sources like oil.

16
Energy in a Mobile World
A-1

• End of 20th Century
• Modern energy intensive society.
• Contemporary technological developments allowed
• Higher occurrence, a better transferability,
  reliability, storability, flexibility, safety and
  cleanliness of high energy content sources for a
  low price.
• Emphasis on petroleum products as the main
  provider of energy.
• Reached the point where the world economy highly
  depends on the internal combustion engine and
  supporting industries.

17
Global Energy Systems Transition, ( of market)
A-1
100
Solids
Wood
Coal
80
Gases
60
Hydrogen
40
Liquids
Oil
20
Natural Gas
0
2000
2150
2050
2100
1850
1950
1900
18
Utility Factors
A-2

• Nature
• Favor the usage of petroleum as the main source
  of energy for transport activities.
• The utility factors were so convenient that a
  dependency on petroleum was created.
• Occurrence
• Location of energy sources considering the
  demand.
• Several energy sources are only available when a
  transportation system exists
• Can support transfers between the supply and the
  demand.
• Exploitation of oil fields in several regions of
  the World (Middle East, Siberia, etc.).
• Only possible when an efficient transportation
  system based upon pipelines and tankers was
  established.

19
Utility Factors
A-2

• Transferability
• Distance over which an energy source can be
  transported.
• Depends on its physical form (solid, liquid or
  gas), its energy content, and on the available
  transport technology.
• Most petroleum products are in a liquid, more or
  less viscous, form.
• Offer an efficient form to be transferred.
• Economies of scale in transportation enhance
  transferability.

20
Economies of Scale in Oil Transportation
A-2
21
Utility Factors
A-2

• Energy content
• Available energy per weight or volume unit of a
  source.
• A low energy content is inadequate when demand is
  high and concentrated in space.
• Gasoline and other petroleum products have a high
  energy content compared to other fossil fuels
  like coal.
• Even more when compared to gravity and solar
  energy.
• Reliability
• Continuous availability is an advantage over
  intermittent sources.
• Many sources and continuous supply through
  maritime and land routes have given a relative
  reliability for petroleum products.

22
Utility Factors
A-2

• Some contemporary military interventions were
  performed to insure the reliability of oil
  sources and their transport.
• Storability
• An energy source has an advantage when it can be
  stored to answer variations in demands and
  interruptions of supplies.
• In liquid form, petroleum products are easily
  stored.
• Flexibility
• Capacity of an energy source to answer multiple
  usage.
• Petroleum by-products are the basis of whole
  industrial sectors (petrochemical).
• Synthesize goods like plastics, pharmaceutical
  products, and synthetic rubber.

23
Utility Factors
A-2

• Safety
• Sources that can be provided and used at low
  risks (human and environmental) are an advantage.
• The petrochemical industry presents some risks
  (accidents during extraction, refining, transport
  and usage).
• Oil is considered a safe source of energy for its
  production and usage.
• Cleanliness
• Sources that produce few waste and are cleanly
  used have an advantage.
• In regards of other conventional energy sources
  like coal and wood and of the available
  technology, oil is cleaner to use and produces a
  limited amount of waste.

24
Utility Factors
A-2

• Price
• Sources at low cost are generally more used.
• A function of the occurrence, the transferability
  and the energy content of the source.
• Massive investments on large scale extraction,
  refining and transport of petroleum products.
• Constant supply.
• Intensive competition from several oil producing
  countries (although with some monopolistic
  control - OPEC).
• Oil price is cheaper than many other sources.

25
Petroleum Dependency
A-3

• The reliance on petroleum
• Petroleum products account for more than 97 of
  the energy consumption by transportation modes.
• Transportation accounts for a growing share of
  the oil used.
• The share of transportation has increased in the
  and now accounts for more the 55 of the oil
  used.
• Since 1973 the price of petroleum has increased
  significantly.
• The transport sector consumed 42 of the oil in
  OECD countries in 1973.
• This share climbed to 55.1 in 1995.
• The sprawl of economic activities, notably in
  urban areas, is strongly linked to this trend.

26
Oil Energy Consumption by Sector for OECD
countries, 1973-1995
A-3
27
Petroleum Dependency
A-3

• Impacts of increasing prices
• Increasing the fuel efficiency of vehicles.
• Use of alternative sources of energy.

28
World Oil Production and Demand, 1996 (in m tons)
A-3
29
World Oil Production and Estimated Resources,
1900-2100 (in billions of barrels)
A-3
30
Cost of Gasoline, United States, 1999
A-3
31
Gasoline Prices, 1978-1999 Selected Countries
(current 1998 dollars per gallon)
A-3
32
Combustion of Hydrocarbons
A-4

• Internal combustion engine
• Almost all transportation modes depend on the
  internal combustion engine.
• For the majority of internal combustion engines,
  gasoline (C8H18 four strokes Otto-cycle engines)
  serves as fuel.
• Other sources like methane (CH4 gas turbines),
  diesel (mostly trucks) and kerosene (turbofans)
  are used.
• Perfect combustion
• If all internal combustion engines had perfect
  combustion, emissions and thus environmental
  impacts of transportation would be negligible
  (except for carbon dioxide emissions).
• Combustion in internal combustion engines is
  imperfect and incomplete.

33
Combustion of Hydrocarbons
A-4

• Chemical reaction
• Complete and perfect combustion of gasoline
• (2) C8H18 (25) O2 (16) CO2 (18) H2O
  energy
• Gasoline produces around 46,000 Btu per kilogram
  combusted.
• Requires from 16 to 24 kg of air.

Gasoline
Oxygen
Combustion
Carbon Dioxide
Water
Energy
34
Combustion of Hydrocarbons
A-4

• Control or the process
• Energy released by combustion causes a rise in
  temperature of the products of combustion.
• Temperature attained depends on the rate of
  release and dissipation of the energy and the
  quantity of combustion products.
• Air is the most available source of oxygen.
• Air also contains vast quantities of nitrogen.
• Nitrogen becomes the major constituent of the
  products of combustion.
• Rate of combustion may be increased by finely
  dividing the fuel to increase its surface area
  and hence its rate of reaction.
• Mixing it with the air to provide the necessary
  amount of oxygen to the fuel.

35
Combustion of Hydrocarbons
A-4

• Imperfect combustion
• The fuel and the oxider are not pure.
• Gasoline is known to have impurities
• Sulfur (0.1 to 5).
• Sometimes lead (anti-knock agent).
• Other hydrocarbons (like benzene and butadiene).
• Air is composed of 78 nitrogen and 21 oxygen.

Gasoline Sulfur Benzene
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Air
Combustion
Carbon Dioxide
Carbon monoxide
Nitrogen Oxides
Water
Energy
VOC HC
36
Combustion of Hydrocarbons
A-4

• Consequences of incomplete combustion
• Incomplete combustion emits other residuals.
• Because of the technology of the engine.
• Besides carbon dioxide and water, a typical
  internal combustion engine will produce
• Carbon monoxide (CO).
• Hydrocarbons (HC benzene, formaldehyde,
  butadiene and acetaldehyde).
• Volatile organic compounds (VOC).
• Sulfur dioxide (SO2), particulates, and nitrogen
  oxides (NOx).
• These combustion products are the main pollutants
  emitted in the environment by transportation.

37
Transportation and Energy Consumption
A-5

• Issue
• Differences between speed, energy costs, mode and
  type of loads (freight and passengers).
• Economies of scale play a crucial role in freight
  transportation
• Transposed in its general levels of energy
  consumption.
• Transportation operators always ponder a
  compromise between speed (returns in overcoming
  distance) and energy (costs in overcoming
  distance).
• Lowest consumption levels are associated with
  bulk freight travelling at slow speed (like oil).
• Compromise of energy over speed.
• High levels correspond to passengers or
  merchandises being carried at high velocities.
• Compromise of speed over energy.

38
Transportation and Energy Consumption
A-5
10
Helicopter
Worst performance
Car
Supersonic plane
Jet plane
Propeller plane
Bus
1
Train
Cargo plane
Gas pipeline
Truck
Energy costs
Bicycle
.1
Container ship
Freight
Oil Pipeline
Passengers
Train
.01
Tanker
Best performance
Speed (m/sec)
.002
300
10
30
100
1000
39
Energy used by transportation
A-5
40
Transportation and Energy Consumption
A-5

• Car
• Poor energetic performance.
• Road transportation consumes 85 of the total
  energy used by the transport sector in developed
  countries.
• Only 12 of the fuel used by a car actually
  performs work.
• Exhaust (33).
• Cylinder cooling (29).
• Engine friction (13).
• Transmission and axles (5.5).
• Braking (7.5).

41
Factors of Fuel Use by Transportation
A-5
Technology Vehicle efficiency Type of fuel
Economics Prices and incomes
Fuel Use
Infrastructure Provision and Levels of service
Urban Form Density and distribution
42
Typical Energy Use for a Car
A-5
43
Average Gasoline Consumption for New Vehicles,
United States, 1972-2001 (in miles per gallon)
A-5
44
Light-Duty Vehicles Sales in the United States,
1975-2001 (in 1,000s)
A-5
45
Change in Average Vehicle Characteristics,
1981-2001 (in )
A-5
46
Average Miles per Gallon Traveled by Road Vehicle
in the United States, 1996
A-5
47
Energy Consumption by Mode of Transportation in
the United States (in Trillion BTU)
A-5
48
Energy Consumption by Road Transportation in the
United States (in Trillion BTU)
A-5
49
Energy, Transportation and Urban Form
B

• 1. The Notion of Distance
• 2. Factors Affecting Distance Traveled

50
Factors Affecting Distance Traveled
A-1

• Trends
• The distance traveled has increased over the last
  20 years in developed countries.
• Predominantly in urban areas.
• VMT (VKT)
• Vehicle-Miles Traveled (or Vehicle-KM).
• Important measure of the usage of energy by
  transportation.
• Has increased 3 per year on average since 1970.
• Growth systematically higher than population
  growth and GDP growth.
• VMT growth has been linked to a set of factors.

51
Factors Affecting VMT Growth
A-1
Vehicle Ownership
Vehicle Occupancy
Population
Age
VMT
Economic Activity
Trip Length
Spatial Structure
Cost of Driving
Alternatives available
52
Factors Affecting Distance Traveled
A-2

• Population and economic activity
• Both a dominant factor.
• Population growth is accompanied by an increase
  in urban travel.
• Economic activity, often expressed by GDP, is
  linked with increasing urban travel.
• Wealthier population can afford to travel more
  often and over longer distances.
• Increased consumption requires added deliveries
  of goods and resources.
• Vehicle ownership
• Access to a personal vehicle promotes its use.
• Correlated with the wealth of the population.
• From 1969 to 1995, the number of vehicles per
  household has increased from 1.2 to 1.8 in the
  United States.

53
Annual Growth Rates of VMT, Population and GDP,
1970-1995, United States
A-2
54
Changes in Population, GDP and VMT, 1969-1995,
United States (1969100)
A-2
55
Factors Affecting Distance Traveled
A-2

• Location of population
• Significant changes in the location of the
  population, notably in developed countries.
• New spatial structures, such as sub-urbanization.
• Lower average population densities.
• Age of the population
• Strong correlation between age and mobility.
• People over 65 are on average 40 less mobile
  than people between 35 and 54.
• Aging of population will slow VMT growth.
• Trip length
• Correlated with locational changes in population.
• Longer distances between home and place of work.

56
Annual VMT by Age Group and Gender, United
States, 1995
A-2
57
Home-to-Work Commute Profile, United States,
1983-1995
A-2
58
Factors Affecting Distance Traveled
A-2

• Vehicle Occupancy
• Reflects the intensity of use of private and
  public urban transportation.
• Dropped significantly in most developed
  countries.
• The most significant drop was for work-related
  trips.
• Cost of driving
• Act as a deterrent.
• Involve several costs such as car ownership,
  insurance, maintenance, taxes and fuel.
• Have remained similar over the last 25 years.
• Alternatives available
• Involve public transit, walking, cycling,
  carpooling or working at home.

59
Vehicle Occupancy by Purpose, 1977-1995, United
States
A-2
60
Alternative Sources of Energy for Urban
Transportation
C

• 1. Context
• 2. Alternative Fuels

61
Context
A-1

• Emergence
• Received increasing amounts of attention since
  the first oil crisis in 1973.
• Attention ebbs and flows with fluctuations in the
  price of oil.
• Several of alternate sources need further
  research before they can become truly viable
  alternatives.
• Moving from carbon-based sources to non-carbon
  based.
• Unsustainability of fossil fuels
• The resource itself is finite its use
  contributes to the global warming problem.
• Some 35 of the carbon emissions in the USA is
  attributable to electric power generation.
• Employing substitutes for fossil fuels in that
  area alone would help alleviate our greenhouse
  gas problem.

62
Context
A-1

• Fuel use efficiency
• Not an alternate energy source but can have a
  great impact on the conservation side of the
  ledger.
• After 1973, many industries were motivated to
  achieve greater efficiency of energy use.
• Many appliances (including home air conditioners)
  were made more energy efficient.
• The motivation to do this declined during the
  1980s with declining energy costs.
• The USA continually ranks behind Europe and Japan
  in energy efficiency.
• Contributes to our lack of competitiveness with
  those economies.

63
Context
A-1

• Besides electricity generation, another 32 of
  the carbon emissions in the USA is due to
  vehicular use.
• More fuel-efficient cars would help reduce this
  amount.
• Alternate energy sources, such as electricity,
  might make a greater difference.
• Require a great behavioral adjustment on the part
  of the car-using public, especially in the USA.

64
Alternative Fuels
A-2

• Hydrogen
• Considered in itself the cleanest fuel.
• Compose 90 of the matter of the universe.
• Non polluting (emits only water and heat).
• Highest level of energy content.
• Fuel cells
• Convert fuel energy (such as hydrogen) to
  electric energy.
• No combustion is involved.
• Composed of an anode and a cathode.
• Fuel is supplied to the anode.
• Oxygen is supplied to the cathode.
• Electrons are stripped from a reaction at the
  anode and attracted to form another reaction at
  the cathode.

Hydrogen
Oxygen
Fuel
Fuel Cell
Catalytic conversion
Water
Electricity
65
Alternative Fuels
A-2

• Fuel cell cars
• Most likely replacement for the internal
  combustion engine.
• Efficiency levels are between 55 and 65.
• Where to get the hydrogen from?
• Not naturally occurring.
• Electrolization of water.
• Electricity from fossil fuels not a
  environmentally sound alternative.
• Electricity from solar or wind energy is a better
  alternative.
• Extraction from fossil fuels.
• From natural gas.