Chapter 13: Human and Artificial Intelligence

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Chapter 13 Human and Artificial Intelligence
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What Do You Consider Intelligence?
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Intelligence Is

• Capacity to learn from experience
• Ability to adapt to different contexts
• The use of metacognition to enhance learning

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Implicit Theory of Intelligence

• Unstated conceptions of intelligence
• Note different meanings in different contexts
• Influenced by culture

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Emotional Intelligence

• Mayer Salovey (1997)
• The capacity to reason about emotions, and of
  emotions to enhance thinking. It includes the
  abilities to accurately perceive emotions, to
  access and generate emotions so as to assist
  thought, to understand emotions and emotional
  knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions
  so as to promote emotional and intellectual
  growth

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Social Intelligence

• Ability to get along with others
• Knowledge of social matters
• Insight into moods or underlying personality
  traits of others

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Cultural Intelligence

• CQ
• Persons ability to adapt in diverse cultures

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Artificial Intelligence

• The computational part of the ability to achieve
  goals in the world

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Historical Trends

• Emphasize psychophysical abilities
• Galton
• Examine relationships of sensory abilities
• Emphasize on judgment
• Binet (1904)
• Identify children needing special instruction
• Compared childs abilities to what the average
  child at that age could do

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Historical Trends

• Terman (1900s)
• Created an English version of Binets test
  (called it the Stanford-Binet)
• Created the intelligence quotient (IQ) divide
  mental age by chronological age then multiply by
  100
• Became the first modern intelligence test

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Types of items on the Stanford-Binet
Age Task
4 Fill in the missing word when asked, "A puppy is a dog, a kitten is a _______.
9 Answers correctly when the examiner says, Yesterday, the scientist went into the swamp to capture a dinosaur. What is foolish about that?
12 Fills in the missing words of sentences like "The rivers are flooding because."
Adult Can describe the difference between happiness and elation, and virtue and morality.
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Wechsler Intelligence Scales

• Wechsler created scales for adults, children, and
  preschoolers
• Yield 3 scores
• Verbal score
• Performance score
• Overall score
• Most widely used intelligence test

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Types of Items on the Wechsler
Verbal Scales Performance Scales
Information Picture completion
Digit span Picture arrangement
Vocabulary Block design
Arithmetic Digit symbol
Comprehension Object assembly
Similarities  
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Measurement or Process?

• Measurement structure
• Identify most relevant factors
• Process emphasis
• Identify and examine the speed and accuracy of
  mental manipulations

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Nature, Nurture, or Both?

• Is intelligence genetic?
• Is intelligence acquired?
• Is intelligence a combination of both?

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Factor Analysis

• Primary method used to describe intelligence
  structure
• Correlations among many dependent variables are
  examined with the goal of discovering something
  about the nature of the factors that affect them
• How many different factors are needed to explain
  the pattern of relationships among these
  variables?

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Factor Analysis Matrix
  Reading Numerical Visual
Paragraph comprehension 0.84 0.10 0.06
Sentence completion 0.86 -0.05 -0.01
Word meaning 0.81 0.04 -0.02
Counting dots 0.08 0.91 0.04
Identifying shapes 0.02 0.82 0.10
Multiplication -0.24 0.87 -0.02
Paper folding 0.05 0.20 0.77
Block patterns -0.03 -0.01 0.65
Series completion 0.02 0.04 0.57
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Number of Factors in the Structure of Intelligence

• Spearman says two
• Thurstone says seven
• Guilford says 150
• Cattell, Vernon, and Carroll propose hierarchical
  models

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Spearmans g Factor

• Two-factor theory of intelligence
• All intellective functioning was due to an
  overall mental ability g
• Accompanied by specific abilities for differing
  mental tasks

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Thurstones 7 Primary Mental Abilities

• Verbal comprehension
• Verbal fluency
• Inductive reasoning
• Spatial visualization
• Number
• Memory
• Perceptual speed

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Guilford

• SOI Model
• Structure of Intelligence
• Each cube represents an intersection of
  operations, products and contents to create 150
  components of intelligence

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Cattells Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence

• Fluid intelligence
• Ability to reason and use information
• Peaks approximately at age 20
• Crystallized intelligence
• Acquired skill and learned knowledge
• Continues to increase into old age

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Carrolls Three-Strata Model
Stratum III General
g
Stratum II Broad abilities
fluid
Auditory perception
retrieval
Cognitive speed
crystalized
Processing speed
memory
Visual perception
Stratum I Narrow abilities
Listening
Perceptual speed
Word fluency
Word recognition
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Historical Trends Intelligence

• In the past, focus was on the product, identify
  aptitudes, measure, and create models based on
  data
• 1960s 1970s conceptualization changed
• What are the processes involved?
• Information processing models focus on the
  processes that are involved in intelligence

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Information Processing Intelligence

• Inspection time
• How long a stimuli has to be viewed before an
  accurate judgment can be made
• How quickly a person gives their answer is
  irrelevant, participants are encouraged to take
  their time

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Inspection Time Demonstration

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Inspection Time and IQ

• Nettlebeck Lally (1976)
• First to note the relationship
• Nettlebeck (1987)
• Inspection time accounts for 25 of IQ variance
  (r -.5)
• The higher the IQ, the less stimulus time needed
  to accurately inspect the stimuli
• Big issue now is direction of causation between
  the two variables

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Intelligence and Other Processes

• The speed at which we process thought can explain
  why one individual is more intelligent than
  another
• Choice Reaction Time
• Jensen
• Lexical Access Speed
• Hunt
• Speed of word retrieval

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Working Memory Intelligence

• Being able to store and manipulate information in
  working memory is related to level of
  intelligence

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Componential Analysis

• This approach involves identifying the steps in
  complex information-processing tasks and seeing
  how each process contributes to the decision
• Sternbergs componential analysis on solving
  analogies
• Red Stop Green ____
• Graceful Clumsy Late _____
• Encode - Identify each term of the problem
• Inference - Discover rule between 1st two terms
• Mapping - Map rule to second set of terms
• Application - Apply relationship and generate
  final term

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Sternbergs Findings

• Measured amount of reaction time for each step
• Found more intelligent participants took longer
  to encode, but less time to complete the
  remaining steps
• Global versus local planning

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Contextualist View of Intelligence

• Culture and definition of intelligence are
  intertwined
• Differs from one culture to another
• Critical in one culture may be unimportant in
  another culture
• Measurement of intelligence will be influenced by
  culture

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Culture Differences

• Western cultures view intelligence as a means for
  individuals to devise categories and to engage in
  rational debate
• Eastern cultures see it as a way for members of a
  community to recognize contradiction and
  complexity and to play their social roles
  successfully

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Evidence Supporting Cultural Influences

• Kpelle tribe in Africa
• Prefer functional sorting
• In Western society, seen as less intelligent
• Westerners prefer hierarchical sorting
• Italian Americans IQ study
• First generation median 87
• Ceci (1996) Italian Americans scores were
  slightly above average (above 100)
• Cultural assimilation is the explanation

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Gardners Multiple Intelligences

• Eight types of abilities that are independent of
  one another
• Visual / Spatial Intelligence
• Musical Intelligence
• Verbal Intelligence
• Logical/Mathematical Intelligence
• Interpersonal Intelligence
• Intrapersonal Intelligence
• Bodily / Kinesthetic Intelligence
• Naturalist Intelligence

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Gardners Theory

• Is modular, each type is independent of another
• Allows for existence of savants

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Sternbergs Triarchic Theory

• Emphasizes how 3 types of abilities work together
  to create intelligent behavior

Triarchic Theory
Analytical Compare, Evaluate Analyze
Creative Insights, Synthesis, Adapting in
unique situations
Practical Dealing with Everyday tasks Relating
to world
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Sternbergs Triarchic Theory

• Intelligence involves not merely adapting to
  ones environment but in some cases modifying
  the environment or selecting another
• Intelligences are developing abilities, not fixed
  characteristics, of an individual Traditional
  definitions conceptualize intelligence to remain
  essentially constant throughout an adult life
• Intelligence means adapting using your strengths
  and improving or compensating for your weaknesses
  

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Improving Intelligence

• Head Start programs
• Enriched home enviroment
• Abecedarian Project
• Integration leads to equalization

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Malleability of Intelligence

• Impact of belief on Intelligence
• Blackwell, Trzesniewski Dweck (2007)
• If one believes intelligence is malleable, more
  likely to improve in ability than one who
  believes that intelligence is fixed

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Development of Intelligence in Adults

• Not all cognitive skills decline with age
• STM performance declines
• LTM and recognition memory does not

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Is there Evidence for Age Decline?

• Perhaps it is not age per se, but specific
  disorders which cause the decline
• Age effects are confounded by disorders
• Frequent use of cross-sectional designs tends to
  overestimate age effects

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Is there Evidence for Age Decline?

• Consensus on slowing of speed with age

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Age and Wisdom

• Insight into human development and life matters

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Artificial Intelligence

• The Turing test
• Used to refer to a proposal made by Turing (1950)
  as a way of dealing with the question whether
  machines can think
• Can an observer who has a conversation with a
  computer and a human figure out which
  conversationalist is the computer?
• Computer passes Turing test if the person cannot

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Computer Programs Better than Humans

• Deep Blue and Chess
• 1,000,000,000,000 positions/sec
• 100 - 200 billion moves considered
• Able to evaluate moves
• Beat world champion Kasparov in 1997 match

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Psychotherapy AI

• ELIZA
• Weizenbaum (1966) created this program to engage
  in a dialogue imitative of the style favored in
  Rogerian psychotherapy
• The program can successfully emulate human
  conversation to a degree that humans often
  assumed they were communicating remotely over
  teletype with another human
• ELIZA's technique of responding to
  keyword-matching demonstrated the plausibility of
  natural language understanding by computers
• PARRY
• Colby (1963) created a computer simulation of a
  paranoid human
• Psychologists reliably judged PARRY's interactive
  output as being paranoid schizophrenic and were
  unable to distinguish transcripts of a session
  with PARRY from that of a session originating
  from a human patient

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Expert Systems

• Telephone network maintenance
• Credit evaluation
• Tax planning
• Detection of insider securities trading
• Mineral exploration
• Irrigation and pest management
• Predicting failure of diesel engines
• Medical diagnosis
• Class selection for students

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Limitations of Expert Systems

• Can handle only narrow domains
• Do not possess common sense/intuition
• Have a limited ability to learn

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Summary

• To date, no computer AI can match all dimensions
  of human intelligence
• For algorithmic problems, computers can perform
  faster, however humans still write the programming