Ethical Theory

1
Ethical Theory

• Seeking a Standardfor Morally Correct Action

2
Overview

• What is an ethical theory?
• The two main ethical theories consequentialism
  and nonconsequentialism
• Focus on consequentialism
• Consequentialism as applied in business and
  public policy

3
Three Levels of Ethical Judgment

• Particular cases e.g., Marys abortion was
  morally wrong.
• Principles e.g.
• Abortion is wrong except to save a human life
  (applies to all cases of abortion)
• Killing another person is wrong except in
  self-defense. (applies to all cases of killing)
• The most general principle would apply to all
  actionsthis is a theory.

4
A Theory is an Ethical Standard for all Actions

• An answer to the question what makes a morally
  right act right?
• What do all morally right acts have in common?

5
Consequentialism

• The morally right act is the one with the best
  consequences.
• Consequentialism also called utilitarianism
• Totally future oriented looks at results
• Certainly general enough. It can apply to all
  actions. But is it correct?

6
Are any actions good or bad in themselves?

• Consequentialism
• No an action is right or wrong depending on
  whether its consequences are good or bad.
• Right good

• Nonconsequentialism
• Yes Some actions are inherently good or bad.
• Rule-based theory
• Rights-based theory

7
Consequentialism and Nonconsequentialism (Refined)

• Consequentialism
• Consequences are the ONLY thing to consider

• Nonconsequentialism

Consequences count, but also rules and rights Consequences are irrelevant
Prima facie (non-absolute) rules and rights Absolute rules (Kant) and rights
8
Are any actions immoral in and of themselves?

• Imagine you can save 10 children from dying of a
  painful disease by capturing one child from an
  orphanage and doing an experiment that will cause
  that one child a painful death.
• No other way to save the 10 children.
• Would it be morally okay?

9
Are any actions immoral in and of themselves?

• Churchill example was it morally right for
  Churchill to aim to kill innocent civilians in
  German cities in order to prevent a greater
  number of deaths from a Nazi victory?

10
Nonconsequentialist

• Certain moral rules define correct actions e.g.,
  it is always immoral to act with an intent to
  kill innocent people.
• Can be formulated as moral rights of the person
  acted on e.g., children have an absolute moral
  right not to be subjects of dangerous
  experiments.
• Any act violating a moral rule or right is
  inherently immoral (regardless of results).

11
Consequentialist Response

• Consequentialism not as crude as first appears.
• Would not condone killing if same good result
  possible with less harm
• Must consider long-term and subtle consequences
  as well (e.g., precedent set)

12
Consequentialism in practice

• If right act is one that creates good
  consequences, good for whom?
• Answer for everyone affected.
• Must be impartial self or family counts no more
  (or less) than anyone else

13
If right act is one with good consequences, what
is good?

• Happiness as only good
• Bentham quantity of pleasure
• Mill quality as well as quantity of pleasure
• Satisfaction of preferences as the good (less
  paternalistic?)
• Goes with capitalism
• Preference utilitarianism

14
Must Choose Best Possible Act
15 9 8
-10 -3 -1
5 6 7
15
How Are These Points Determined?

• Number of people affected
• Intensity of the effect
• Likelihood
• (Should we also consider whether effect will
  happen sooner or later?)

16
Consequentialism is flawed because we cant
predict the future with certaintyWhat should
we think of this criticism?
17
A weak criticism of consequentialism we dont
know whats going to happen

• Consequentialism takes that into account
  (likelihood)
• Reasonable to play the odds, just as we do in
  everyday life
• Falsely assumes that a good ethical theory must
  be simple and easy to apply.

18
How does utilitarian theory get applied as
cost-benefit analysis?

• The minus points are costs (e.g., )
• The plus points are benefits such as
• Lives saved
• Reduction in risk of dying
• Suffering avoided (e.g., days in hospital)
• Pleasure gained
• Typical is it worth spending a million dollars
  to . . .?

19
What are the problems of CBA?

• The dwarfing of soft variablesstuff that cant
  easily be quantified as dollars like enjoyment of
  a sunny day.
• Defining the value of a human life in dollar
  terms.
• Willingness to pay for reduction in risks
• Wording of surveys
• Expected future earnings?
• Irrationality of popular perception of risks.

20
Problems Applying vs Criticisms

• Problems applying do not challenge the whole
  approach of utilitarianism
• They are things utilitarians disagree about
• If we decide consequentialism (utilitarianism) is
  the right theory, then we may still debate
• What things are good (happiness, etc.)?
• How to figure out the numbers (e.g., for life)

21
Criticisms of Consequentialism
22
Key Concepts

• Moral rules and moral rights
• Justice (as one part of morality)
• Morally relevant difference between acts and
  omissions
• Intuition and reflective equilibrium
• Testing whether an argument withstands criticism

23
You Should Know

• What are the main criticisms of consequentialism?
• How does the consequentialist respond to each of
  them?
• Different views on the role of theory in relation
  to our intuition on particular cases.

24
Problems Applying vs. Criticisms

• Problems applying utilitarianism do not
  challenge the whole approach of the theory.
  (Criticisms do.)
• They are things utilitarians disagree about.
• If we decide consequentialism (utilitarianism) is
  the right theory, then we may still debate
• What things are good (happiness, etc.)?
• How to figure out the numbers (e.g., for life)

25
Criticisms of Consequentialism

1. Utilitarianism does not take into account rights
   and rules.
2. Utilitarianism does not take into account
   justice.
3. Consequentialism does not take into account the
   morally relevant difference between acts and
   omissions
4. Consequentialism does not take into account
   special obligations to special people
5. Consequentialism requires too much of us (relate
   this to 3)

26
Consequentialism ignores moral rules and moral
rights

• A fundamental question of all ethics Do we need
  the notion of rights?
• Big problems Where do rights come from? What
  rights do we have?
• But can we have an acceptable ethical theory
  without rights?

27
Theory and Particular Cases

• Cant decide on particular case first and then
  pick the theory that matches. Why not?
• But we do test theory by application to specific
  cases. (Analogy with science.)
• Debate on role of intuition.
• Reflective equilibrium.

28
Utilitarianism Ignores Justice

• 10 of population becomes slaves.
• 90 are extremely happy.
• Society has greatest balance of /- points.
• Utilitarian chooses this.

• Everyone has freedom
• Total happiness not as great

29
Utilitarianism Ignores Special Obligations to
Special People

• But why should I save my daughter over 100
  starving children?
• Cannot appeal to feelings
• Cannot appeal to what most people would do.
• Need an ethical principle.

30
Morally Relevant Difference Between Acts and
Omissions

• Is it morally worse to kill a patient who wants
  to die than not to treat?
• Is it morally worse to bomb innocent civilians
  than to allow them to die by not acting?
• What if killing can reduce the number who die, as
  Williams Indian example?
• Is it wrong to buy running shoes when the money
  could save many peoples lives?

31
Think About

• What is the strongest criticism of
  utilitarianism? Why?
• Can utilitarianism withstand criticism?
• Basic A claim is well-grounded if the arguments
  for it can withstand criticism.
• A well-grounded claim is one more worthy of
  belief.