REVIEW 10-18

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REVIEW 10-18
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Cognitive Development

• Chapter 10

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Jean PiagetDiscontinuous

• Equilibration-balance between demands of
  environment and childs abilities
• Assimilation-add new info to existing schema
• Accommodation-modify existing schema

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Stage 1 Sensorimotor 0-2

• Object permanenceabout 9 months realize out of
  sight still exists
• Representational thought begins 18-24 months

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Stage 2 Preoperational 2-7

• Egocentrismthinks everyone sees same as them
• Animisticinanimate objects are alive
• Artificialisticnatural objects/events made by man

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Stage 3 Concrete-Operational 7-12

• Conservation of quantity

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Stage 4 Formal-Operational 11

• Abstract thought algebra, etc

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Criticisms of Piaget

• All naturalistic observation
• Question discontinuous stages
• Question explanations for difficulties
• Ages may be off
• Western culture specific

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Neo-Piagetians

• 5th stage Post-formal
• Dialectical thinking
• Thesis, antithesis, synthesis

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Lev Vygotskycontinuous

• Internalization-respond to external stimuli
• Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
• Range between present abilities and those that
  might develop with prompting

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Cognitive theorists--continuous

• Mental operations
• Analysis of mental operations
• How changes occur
• Learning in specific areas

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Memory

• Metamemory-awareness of memory process
• Young children less likely to use elaborative
• Helps if in order
• Repeated experience

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Social Development

• Emotion subjective, conscious experience
  accompanied by bodily arousal and typical facial
  expression
• Cognitive componentsubjective, conscious
  experience
• Physiological componentbodily arousal
• Right prefrontal cortex-negative affect
• Left prefrontal cortex-positive affect
• Behavioral componentfacial expression

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Emotional Development

• Discrepancy Theory
• Assimilation
• Notes Discrepancy Recognizes familiar
  stimulus

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Differentiation Theory

• Generalized state of arousal at birth that
  differentiates into different emotions
  (specialized)

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Discrete-Emotions

• Hardwired predisposition to specific emotions

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Cognitive-evolutionary theory

• Emotions help us adapt to changing needs and
  situations
• Joy-about to achieve goal
• Anger-stopped from goal
• Sadness-goal in unobtainable
• Fear-withdrawal from stimulus
• Interest-novel situation

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Erik Erikson

• Trust vs. Mistrust (Hope)
• Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (Mastery)
• Initiative vs. guilt (Purpose)
• Industry vs. inferiority (Competence)
• Identity vs. Role confusion (Fidelity)
• Intimacy vs. Isolation (Unselfish love)
• Generativity vs. Stagnation (Productivity)
• Integrity vs. Despair (Wisdom)
• Will Control over emotions, thoughts, etc
• Competence

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James Marcia

• Identity Development
• Identity AchievementExamined choices and made
  decision
• Identity MoratoriumExamined choices but no
  decision yet
• Identity ForeclosureDecision based on others
  (parents)not your own
• Identity DiffusionNo examination, no choice no
  direction
• Alienated AchievementRejects society

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Self-concept view of self

• Western cultureindependence and individualism
• Some Asian culturesinterdependence and
  collectivistic

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Self-understanding (Damon Hart) Successive
differentiation

• Physical selfname, body and possessions
• Earliestinfants know self in mirror, voice
• Toddlers know name, gender
• Active selfbehaviors
• Elementary school
• Social selfrelations with others
• Early adolescence
• Psychological selffeelings, beliefs, personality
• Late adolescence

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Self-esteemvalue we place on ourselves

• Harterdifferentiation in four domains
  cognitive competence, physical competence, social
  competence, and behavioral conduct
• Age 4-7 Halo effectoverestimate ratings
• Age 8-12 New domains scholastic, athletic,
  peer acceptance, behavioral conduct, physical
  appearance
• Adulthood11 areas intelligence, self-worth,
  humor, job competence, morality, athletic
  ability, physical appearance, sociability,
  intimacy, nurturance, provider, household
  management

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• William Jamesself-esteem based on our value of
  importance for areas
• Cooleybased on how others social judgment
• Hartersynthesis of the two

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• Becomes more modest and accurate as we age.
• If underestimate, low motivation, less
  challenging tasks, etc
• Girls more often underestimate abilities,
  especially math
• Teenage girls have negative body image

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Temperament

• tendency for emotions in terms of intensity,
  duration and frequency
• Consistent over time
• Shaped by genetics and environment

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Temperament study

• Thomas and Chess3 temperaments
• Easy babies40 playful, adaptable,
• Difficult babies10 irritable
• Slow-to-warm-up babies15
• Doesnt fit criteria33

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Implications of temperament

• Difficult babies need patient parents
• Easy and difficult are value measures
• Self-fulfilling prophecy dangers

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Psychosexual Development

• Gender typingassuming psychological and social
  roles of gender
• Gender constancygender is stable

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Social-Learning Theory

• Psychosexual development comes from role models
  and rewards

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Schema TheorySandra Bem

• Gender schema through interaction with environment

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Attachment Types

• Avoidant attachment type (A) ignores mother,
  minimal distress at absence
• Secure attachment type (B) distress as mother
  leaves, can be calmed by stranger
• Resistant attachment type (C) runs to and
  resists mother
• Disorganized attachment pattern after reunited,
  confused and disoriented

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Criticisms

• 1. Not stable
• 2. Temperament, not attachment?
• 3. Brief experiment
• 4. Implied value judgment

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Parenting Style

• Authoritarian--very strict--leads to distrustful
  children
• Permissive--too much freedom--children immature
  and dependent
• Authoritative--reasoning, responsibility,
  limits--well-adjusted children

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KOHLBERG'S Moral Development

• Level 1 Preconventional --At this level
  judgement is based solely on a person's own needs
  and perceptions.
• Stage 1 Punishment-obedience Orientation
• Stage 2 Personal Reward Orientation

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Level 2 Conventional

• --The expectations of society and society's laws
  are taken into account in a decision about a
  moral dilemma.
• Stage 3 Good boy-Nice girl Orientation
• Stage 4 Law and Order Orientation

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Level 3 Postconventional

• --Judgements are based on abstract, more personal
  principles that aren't necessarily defined by
  society's laws.
• Stage 5 Social Contract Orientation
• Stage 6 Universal Ethical Principle Orientation

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Motivation

• Motive an impulse,desire or need that leads to
  action
• Motivation Processes that give behavior its
  energy and direction

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Early theories of Motivation

• Instinct Theory
• 1. Inherited
• 2. Species-specific
• 3. Stereotyped
• Automatically as response to stimulus
• (Darwin, William James)

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Drive Theory

• Drive Reduction Theory (Clark Hull)
• Drive is an impulse to satisfy a need
• Primary Drives-biological (thirst, hunger)
• Secondary Drives-learned

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Arousal Theory

• Yerkes-Dodson Law
• Optimal level of arousal
• Too high or too low affects performance

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Opponent-Process Theory

• Baseline
• Acquired Motivation for greater stimulus
• Habituated
• Opponent-process to return to baseline from
  either above or below

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Homeostatic Regulation

• Maintain equilibrium using negative-feedback loop

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Theory of Needs

• Henry Murray
• Twenty needs such as power, affiliation,
  achievement

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Need for Achievement

• David McClelland
• High need for achievement take on moderately
  challenging task they are likely to succeed and
  pass

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Maslows Hierarchy of Basic Needs

• Must meet our basic needs before we can meet our
  meta needs and obtain self-actualization

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Cognitive Approaches

• Intrinsic Motivators
• within
• Extrinsic Motivators
• outside

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Explanatory Style

• Optimistic explanatory style--Internal locus of
  control
• Pessimistic explanatory style--External locus of
  control

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Self-Efficacy Theory

• Albert Bandura
• Beliefs about ability to reach goals influences
  our actual success

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Hunger Regulation

• Mouth
• Stomach
• Hypothalamus

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Mouth

• Sham feeding
• Dogs stopped eating even if food chewed and
  swallowed

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Stomach

• Hunger pangs
• Contractions of stomach signal hunger BUT people
  without stomachs still feel hungry

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Hypothalamus

• Lateral Hypothalamus--ON switch
• Ventromedial hypothalamus--OFF switch

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Glucostatic Hypothesis

• VMH LH monitor level of glucose and determine
  the need for food

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Lipostatic Hypothesis

• VMH LH monitor levels of lipids (fat) and
  determine the need for food

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Set-point theory

• Hypothalamus controls hunger and metabolic rate.
  Everyone has preset body weight determined by
  number of fat cells. Fat cells expand as we gain
  weight and contracts as we lose weight. When we
  lose weight, it is difficult to get below set
  point. Our bodies interpret starvation and
  respond by storing fat. If we gain weight over
  time, set-point may increase.

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Sex

• Hypothalamus
• Evolution
• Sexual scripts norms
• Theories of homosexuality

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Emotions
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Early Psychophysiological Approaches

• Common Sense
• Cry because we are sad run because we are afraid
• Stimulus?emotion?autonomic arousal

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James-Lange theory

• Emotions follow, dont cause behavior
• Afraid because we run
• Stimulus?Autonomic arousal?Conscious feeling
• Bear-----?Heart beating, etc--?Fear

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Cannon-Bard theory

• Emotions accompany bodily responses
• Stimulus?mental processing?experience of emotion
• Body change and cognitive change occur at the
  same time

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Modern Psychophysiological Approaches

• Central Nervous System
• Different emotions create different patterns of
  ANS arousal
• Endocrine System
• Emotions related to levels of hormones released
• Anger?norepinephrine
• Fear?epinephrine

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Cognitive Approaches

• Schacter-Singer Cognitive Appraisal (Two-factor
  theory)
• Stimulus arousal?interpretation?emotion
• Physical reaction is similar for different
  emotions
• Label the emotion based on context

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Temporal-Sequence Theories

• LazarusPrimary appraisal?secondary
  appraisal?reappraise
• Appraise situation?Decide course of
  action?rethink if necessary
• Zajonccognition and emotion are separate.
  Evolutionary evidence to show emotion preceded
  cognition

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Social Psychology
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Attitudes

• learned, stable, enduring evaluation of person,
  object, etc which affects behavior

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Attitude Formation

• 3 ways attitudes form
• Classical Conditioning
• CS UCS ------? CR/UCR
• Commercial TV show ---------? Favorable
  feelings

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Attitude formation (cont.)

• Operant ConditioningRewards/punishments for
  attitudes
• Observational LearningChildren learn attitudes
  from adults, tv, etc

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Attitude Change

• 3 Factors influence Change

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1. Recipient

• A. Central routethoughtful arguments, more
  stable
• B. Peripheral routesituational
• Appeal of sender, attractiveness, etc

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2. Message

• A. Balanced presentation of viewpoints
• B. Mere exposure effect.

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3. The Source

• A. Credibility
• B. Likability

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Cognitive Consistency

• Need for behaviors to match attitudes

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Cognitive dissonance

• mismatch of behaviors/attitudes. Creates
  discomfort and must change attitude to fit
  behavior

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Self-perception theoryget attitudes from
behaviors

• From new attitudes to match behavior

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• Cognitive Dissonance better explains if people
  act against usual beliefs, attitudes
• Self-perception theorybetter explains attitude
  formation

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Attributions

• mental explanations for causes of behaviors in
  self and others
• A. Personal attributions-causes are internal
• B. Situationalcauses are external

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Attributional Heuristics Biases

• Social Desirabilityfocus more on bad behavior
  over good (picking nose is restaurant despite big
  tip, etc)
• Fundamental Attribution Error--Overemphasizes
  internal, underemphasizes external

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Actor-Observer Bias

• Attributes actions of others as stable, self as
  situational.

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• Self-serving biaseswe give ourselves the benefit
  of the doubt
• Self-handicappingwe give ourselves
  justifications for our failures

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Forming Impressions

• Impression formationuse of available information
  to create conceptions of individuals
• Solomon Asch Found that central traits are most
  influential in our formation of impressions

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Impression Formation Heuristics Biases

• Primacy Effectfirst impressions really do matter
• Confirmation Biaswe tend to see things that
  support our impressions and ignore opposing
  information
• Self-fulfilling prophecywhat we expect to see,
  we see

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Impression Formation Heuristics Biases

• Person-positivity bias---because it is easier to
  change our opinion of an individual rather than a
  group, we tend to be more forgiving of
  individuals without changing our opinions of the
  group to which they belong. Hes a good guy
  even though he goes to Clayton

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Social-Comparison Theory

• We compare ourselves to others may be
  unrealistic depending upon to whom we compare
  ourselves.

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Groups

• Social facilitation others improve performance
  by their presence. Works on easy, familiar, well
  learned tasks
• Social inhibition others diminish performance
  by their presence. Works on difficult,
  unfamiliar, unlearned tasks
• Distraction-conflict theory others distract us
  and explain social facilitation/inhibition

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Social Loafing as group size increases, loafing
increases
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Ways to decrease it

• 1. evaluation of individuals
• 2. Importance of task
• 3. Expectation of punishment
• 4. Group cohesiveness

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Group Polarization

• Views of individuals shift in direction of the
  group

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Groupthink (Viet Nam War)
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Conformity, Compliance Obedience
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ConformitySolomon Asch

• Change behaviors to be consistent with the group
• Line length test
• Most will conformbut not believe
• About 25 wont
• Non-conformistsridicule

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7 Factors Influence Conformity

• 1) Group SizeBest with 3-4 people
• 2) CohesivenessBennington College study
• 3) GenderWomen conform more than men May be
  explained by lower status
• 4) Social StatusHi and Lo less likely to
  conform, Middle most
• 5) CultureCollective cultures more likely to
  conform
• 6) UnanimityMore likely if group appears
  unanimous Even 1 dissenter matters
• 7) Idiosyncrasyaccepted by group even if
  dissenter

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Complianceagreeing to request of others
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Compliance techniques

• 1. Justificationdo this so that
• 2. Reciprocityyou do this and Ill do
• 3. Low-ballAgree to easy thing, then spring
  hidden part of deal
• 4. Foot in the doorstart from little to big
• 5. Door in the face---start big, then littler,
  more reasonable request
• 6. Thats Not Allthrow in something to sweeten
  the deal
• 7. Hard to Getconvince them of rarity, etc

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Obediencefollows commands of others

• Stanley Milgram
• ALL went to 300 volts (Mr. Wallace screaming)
• 65 went to maximum 450 volts
• Why?
• Researchers use foot in the door method
• Socialized to obey orders

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Bystander effect, diffusion of responsibility

• Kitty Genovese
• Smoking roomLatane and Darley

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Personality

• Psychodynamic Theories

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Tri-Partite Self

• Id
• Ego
• Superego

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ID

• Primitive process
• Instinctive urges
• Eros--life urge
• Thanatos--death urge
• Pleasure Principle
• Unconscious

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Superego

• Idealistic principle
• Largely unconscious
• Two parts
• Ego ideal
• Conscience

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Ego

• Reality principle
• Largely conscious
• Secondary process

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Defense mechanisms

• Denial
• Repression
• Projection
• Displacement
• Sublimation
• Reaction Formation
• Rationalization
• Regression

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Denial

• It aint a river in Egypt
• It didnt happen

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Repression

• Push harmful memories, urges into our
  unconscious

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Projection

• Project or recognize our own painful
  urges/thoughts onto others

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Sublimation

• Take our bad energy and put it into something
  good
• Violent guy joins the army

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Displacement

• Direct energy towards safe recipient
• Mad at boss so you kick your dog

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Reaction Formation

• Take something bad and make it the opposite
• Disliking someone you cant like

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Rationalization

• Make up excuses to allow for harmful thoughts,
  urges

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Regression

• Hiding by returning to childish behaviors

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Psychosexual Stages

• Oral
• Anal
• Phallic
• Latency
• Genital

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Oral 0-2

• Centers around mouth
• Fixation
• Oral eroticism--sucking, eating, need to be
  nurtured (oral passive)
• Oral sadism--biting, chewing, sarcastic (oral
  aggressive)

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Anal (2-4)

• Centers around toilet training
• Anal-retentive--Neat freak
• Anal-expulsive--Sloppy

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Phallic (4-8)

• Penis envy
• Castration anxiety
• Oedipal conflict
• Electra conflict

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Latency (8-12)

• Sexually repressed

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Genital (puberty-adulthood)

• Fully develop our personality unless fixated

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Neo-Freudians

• Alfred Adler
• Carl Jung
• Karen Horney
• Object-relations theories

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Alfred Adler

• Inferiority complex
• Expectations for future
• Based on fictions
• Act on subjective perceptions

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Carl Jung

• Personal and Collective Unconscious
• Archetypes
• Personality
• Persona
• Shadow
• Anima/animus

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Synchronicity

• Co-incidence of events is actually meaningful
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  icity_1983.html - 01

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Karen Horney

• Basic anxiety
• Relieve basic anxiety by
• Showing affection to others
• Strive for power
• Withdraw
• All are social responses

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Trait Approach

• Gordon Allport
• Raymond Cattell
• Hans Eysneck
• Meyers-Briggs

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Gordon Allport

• Traits are inherited
• Traits are fixed
• Personality is a combination of 18,000 traits

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Raymond Cattell

• Source and Surface Traits
• 16 PF (Personality Factors)
• Spectrum of 16 PFs
• Reserved vs. Outgoing

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Meyers-Briggs

• 16 combinations 4 spectrums
• Introversion-extroversion
• Sensing-intuition
• Thinking-feeling
• Judgment-perception

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Humanistic Approach
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Abraham Maslow

• Hierarchy of basic needs

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Carl Rogers

• Person-centered approach
• Self-concept vs. Ideal-self
• Goal Fully-functioning

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Cognitive-Behavioral Approach

• Julian RotterSocial-Learning Theory
• Internal and external locus of control

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Albert Bandura Social-Cognitive Approach

• Reciprocal Determinism
• Interactions of behaviors, environment and
  individual
• Self-efficacy

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Trait-Based Approach

• Gordon Allport
• Cardinal, central and secondary traits
• Inherited, fixed traits
• Personality is a combination of 18,000 traits
• Raymond Cattell
• Source and Surface traits
• 16 PF (personality factor)
• Spectrum (reserved vs. outgoing)
• Hans Eysenck
• Extroversion, Neuroticism, Psychoticism

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Big Five Personality Traits

• Neuroticism
• Extroversion
• Openness
• Agreeableness
• Conscientiousness

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Meyers-Briggs

• 16 combinations, 4 spectra
• Introversion-extroversion
• Sensing-Intuition
• Thinking-Feeling
• Judgment-Perception

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Biological

• Jerome Kagantemperament
• Biological correlates for disposition/temperament
• Dopamine receptor gene linked to novelty seeking

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Interactionist Perspectives(Situational)

• Mark Snyder
• Self-monitoringmonitor and change behavior in
  response to situations
• Zuckerman--Sensation seekers

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Personality Tests

• Projective Tests
• Rorschach Inkblot
• Thematic Apperception Test
• Sentence Completion
• Hand Test
• Lüscher Color Test
• Objective Personality Tests
• NEO-PIMeasures Big Five
• MMPI-- (Minnesota Mulitphasic Personality Index)

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Psychological Disorders

• Chapter 16

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AXIS I Disorders

• Anxiety Disorders
• Phobias
• Specific phobias
• Social phobias
• Agoraphobia
• Panic Disorders
• GADGeneralized Anxiety Disorder
• Stress Disorders
• PTSD (Posttraumatic stress disorder)
• Acute Stress disorder
• Obsessive-compulsive disorder

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Explanations Psychodynamic

• Internal conflict
• Objective anxietyexternal world (fear-normal)
• Moral anxietyfear of punishment by superego
• Neurotic anxietyfear superego cant control id

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Humanistic

• Discrepancy between perceived self and idealized
  self

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Behavioral

• Classical conditioning-paired with fear object
• Vicarious conditioningfrom observing others
• Operant conditioningreinforcers

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Cognitive

• Automatic self-defeating thoughts

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Biological

• GABA leads to high arousal levels
• Serotonin and anxiety

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Mood Disorders

• Depression
• SAD
• Bipolar disorder

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Explanations

• Psychodynamicinward anger over loss
• Humanisticlack of purpose
• Behaviorallack of reward or depression is
  rewarded, learned helplessness
• Cognitivestinkin thinking

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Dissociative Disorders

• Separation of awareness from thoughts and
  feelings
• Dissociative amnesia Loss follows stressful
  event
• Dissociative fugue
• Dissociative identity disorder DID

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Infancy, Childhood Adolescence

• ADHD
• Conduct disorders
• PDD--Pervasive Developmental Disorders

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Axis II

• Personality Disorders
• Paranoid Personality disorder
• Schizoid Personality disorder Difficulty forming
  relationships, indifference to view of others
• Schizotypal Personality disorder Bizarre
  behavior, illusions, magic (mild schizophrenia)
• Borderline Personality disorder Instability in
  moods, self-image, etc
• Narcissitic Inflated sense of self, lack empathy
• Histrionic Needs attention, drama
• Avoidant Low self-esteem, avoid relations with
  others
• Dependent
• Obsessive-compulsive Personality disorder
  Perfectionists
• Anti-social Manipulative, self-centered, low
  baseline of arousal

150
Schizophrenia

• Disorganized (Hebephrenic)
• Catatonic
• Paranoid
• Undifferentiated
• Residual

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Explanations

• Psychodynamic
• Primary narcissism--regression to time before ego
  differentiates from id
• Humanistic
• Szasz-experiences world in a different way
• Laing--society labels problematic behavior

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More Explanation

• Behavioral
• Labeling--once labeled, more likely to engage in
  behaviors
• Cognitive
• Patients try to relate unique sensory experiences
• Stimulus overload
• Lack filtering mechanisms

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Explanations

• Biological
• Excess of dopamine
• Enlarged ventricles
• Less use of prefrontal region