Chapter Seven: Research Questions and Hypotheses

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Chapter SevenResearch Questions and Hypotheses
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Chapter Outline

• Qualitative Research Questions
• Example 7.1. A Qualitative Central Question From
  an Ethnography Example 7.2. Qualitative Central
  Questions From a Case Study
• Quantitative Research Questions and Hypotheses
• Example 7.3. A Null Hypothesis
• Example 7.4. Directional Hypotheses
• Example 7.5. Nondirectional and Directional
  Hypotheses
• Example 7.6. Standard Use of Language in
  Hypotheses
• A Model for Descriptive Questions and Hypotheses
• Example 7.7. Descriptive and Inferential
  Questions
• Mixed Methods Research Questions and Hypotheses
• Example 7.8. Hypotheses and Research Questions
  in a Mixed Methods Study
• Example 7.9. A Mixed Methods Question Written
  Using Methods and Content Language

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Research Questions and Hypothesis

• Investigators place signposts to carry the reader
  through a plan for a study.
• An important signpost is the research question or
  the hypothesis that narrows the purpose statement
  to predictions about what will be learned or
  questions to be answered in the study.

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Qualitative Research Questions

• Qualitative researchers pose research questions
• Not objectives
• Not hypotheses
• Two types of qualitative research questions to
  focus a study's purpose
• Central question
• Broad question that asks for exploration of the
  central phenomenon
• Subquestions
• Questions that narrow the focus of the study

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Writing Qualitative Research Questions

• Ask 1-2 central questions, these should be broad
  and ask for an explanation of the central
  phenomenon or concept in the study. Here the
  intent is to explore the general factors relevant
  to the central phenomenon.
• Ask no more than 5-7 subquestions these will
  narrow the study but leave open the questioning.
• Relate the central question to the strategy of
  inquiry
• Ethnography, questions verify accuracy of data
• Critical ethnography, questions build on an
  existing body of literature
• Phenomenology, questions broadly stated without
  specific reference to existing literature
• Grounded theory, questions generate a theory

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Writing Qualitative Research Questions

• Begin with "what" or "how to convey an open or
  emerging design
• Focus on a single phenomenon or concept, what is
  the one single concept, that you want to explore?
• Use exploratory verbs as nondirectional rather
  than directional words, like affect, influence,
  impact, determine, cause and relate
• Use open-ended questions without reference to the
  literature or theory
• Specify the participants and research site
  (unless stated previously)

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A Script for Writing a Qualitative Central
Question

• (How or What) is the (story for for narrative
  research meaning of the phenomenon for
  phenomenology theory that explains the process
  of for grounded theory culture-sharing
  pattern for ethnography issue in the case
  for case study) of (central phenomenon) for
  (participants) at (research site).

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A Qualitative Central Question From an Ethnography
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Qualitative Central Questions From a Case Study
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Quantitative Research Questions and Hypotheses

• Quantitative researchers pose research questions
  or hypotheses and objectives to focus the study's
  purpose
• Quantitative research questions
• Questions about the relationships among variables
  that the investigator seeks to know
• Quantitative hypotheses
• Predictions that the researcher makes about the
  expected relationships among variables
• Predictions about the population values that the
  researcher will estimate based on data from a
  sample
• Quantitative objectives
• Indicate a study's goals
• Used frequently in proposals for funding

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Writing Quantitative Research Questions and
Hypotheses

• Write questions or hypotheses, not both
• Consider 3 approaches to the variables for a
  question or hypothesis
• Compare groups
• Relate variables
• Describe responses
• Specify questions and hypotheses based on theory
  if possible
• Measure the independent and dependent variables
  separately
• Generally use demographic information as
  intervening variables
• Use consistent words and ordering for independent
  and dependent variables

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Scripts for Writing Quantitative Research
Questions and Hypotheses

• Quantitative research question describing
  outcomes
• What is the frequency and variation of scores on
  ____________ (name the variable) for
  ______________(participants) in the study?
• Quantitative research question focused on
  examining the relationship among variables
• Does _________ (name the theory) explain the
  relationship between _________ (independent
  variable) and _________ (dependent variable),
  controlling for the effects of _________ (control
  variable)?
• Quantitative null hypothesis
• There is no significant difference between
  _________ (the control and experimental groups on
  the independent variable) on _________ (dependent
  variable).

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Forms for Writing Quantitative Research Questions
and Hypotheses

• The use of variables in research questions or
  hypothesis if one wants to do
• An experiment or group comparisons
• A survey that correlates variables
• A descriptive study
• Write research questions and hypothesis that
  logically follow from relationship among
  variables in a theory
• Research questions or hypothesis may indicate
  cause and effect logic
• Research questions and hypothesis should have no
  redundancies, do not write both

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A Null Hypothesis
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Directional Hypotheses
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Forms for Writing Quantitative Research Questions
and Hypotheses

• If writing hypotheses, use a consistent form
• Null hypotheses (predict no difference or no
  relationship)
• Alternative hypothesis or directional hypotheses
  (predict direction of difference or relationship)
• Nondirectional hypotheses (predict a difference
  or relationship, but not its direction)
• Use non demographic variables
• Use the same pattern of word order in the
  questions or hypotheses to enable a reader to
  easily identify the major variables
• If writing research questions
• First, specify descriptive questions for each
  important variable
• Next, state inferential questions that relate
  variables or compare groups
• Finally, add questions in which variables are
  controlled

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Nondirectional and Directional Hypotheses
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Standard Use of Language in Hypotheses
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A Model for Descriptive Questions and Hypotheses
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Mixed Methods Research Questions and Hypotheses

• Advance both qualitative and quantitative
  research questions (or hypotheses) in order to
  narrow and focus the purpose statement
• Use guidelines for writing good qualitative and
  quantitative questions and hypotheses
• Order questions to match the mixed methods design
• In a two-phase design, order to match the phases
• In a one-phase design, order according to the
  method given the most weight
• Include a mixed methods research question that
• Conveys the methods and procedures
• Conveys the content of the study
• Combines the methods and content

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Different Ways to Write Questions and Hypotheses
into a Mixed Methods Study

• Write separate qualitative questions and
  quantitative questions or hypotheses
• At the beginning or as they emerge in phases
• This places emphasis on the two approaches
• Write separate questions or hypotheses followed
  by a mixed methods question
• This highlights the two approaches as well as
  their combined strength
• Write only a mixed methods question
• This emphasizes the integration and not the
  individual parts

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Hypotheses and Research Questions in a Mixed
Methods Study