Section VI Siting

1
Section VISiting
2
Wind Farm Turbine Spacing

• As the wind passes though a turbine energy is
  extracted causing the wind speed in the wake of
  the turbine to decrease. When several turbines
  are built near one another, as in a wind farm, it
  is important to separate the turbines
  appropriately to minimize these array losses.
  Spacing turbines too tightly leads to reduced
  performance and increased maintenance due to
  higher turbulence at the downwind turbines.
• Turbine spacing is expressed in terms of the
  rotor diameter (RD) of the turbine in
  consideration. So, for instance, if a 77 m
  diameter rotor is used, then 2 RD means 2 x 77 m
  154 m 505 ft.
• Typically, turbines are spaced 5 to 10 RD apart
  in the prevailing downwind direction and 2 to 5
  RD apart in the crosswind direction, when there
  is a strongly prevailing direction.
• Spacing of 2-3 RD might be used along a ridge
  line.
• Greater spacing will minimize the losses from
  each machine, but will reduce the number of
  machines that can be built in a site.
• The setback distance from property lines is
  determined by local building codes, and typically
  takes the height of the structure into
  consideration, e.g. 1.5 times the turbine height.
  
• Additionally, state noise policy will typically
  keep wind turbines about 3 times the hub-height
  from residences.
• Ice throw Ice is likely to accumulate on
  ridgemounted wind turbines, just as it
  accumulates on trees. The ice sloughs off as the
  blade flexes. For public safety, ridge-line
  winter trails may need to be moved away from the
  base of the tower to a distance of 2-4 times the
  blade-tip height, depending on the site.
• EX Need 4000 acres (4000 x 43,560 ft2 6.25
  mi2) for placement of an 80 MW wind farm (about
  30-35 turbines) including a 100 x 100 area
  around each turbine.

3
Effect of Wake

• Extraction of energy results in an energy and
  velocity deficit, compared to prevailing wind, in
  the wake of a wind turbine.
• Energy loss in the wake will be replenished over
  a certain distance by exchange of kinetic energy
  with the surrounding wind field.
• Higher turbulence in the wind field accelerates
  energy and momentum exchange between the wake
  and prevailing wind.
• Array losses are typically lt 10 for turbines
  spaced 8-10 RD apart in prevailing downwind
  direction and 5 RD apart in cross-wind direction.

4
Off-shore Wind Farms

• Smooth surface of oceans results in low surface
  roughness and thus low turbulence intensity and
  wind shear.
• Higher low-level winds (lower hub heights
  acceptable)
• Lower fatigue damage and longer turbine life
• Wind velocity measurements at hub heights are not
  generally available so good estimates must be
  made.

5
Siting Considerations
6
Wind Turbine Siting

• Siting is at the heart of conflicts regarding
  wind turbines
• Key issue
• How a turbine interacts with its immediate
  natural environment, including living things
• What influences siting of wind installations?
• Politics
• Local politics and ad hoc associations have the
  greatest effect on the placement of wind energy
  installations
• Not In My BackYard (NIMBY) opposition
• Noise and shadows created by turbines
• Homeowner opposition
• Often consider the operation of large turbines to
  be incompatible with a residential area
• Level of controversy depends on context of the
  siting
• A small wind farm in rural Nebraska
• Little controversy by local residents because the
  installation fits into the landscape
• A small wind farm near a federal or state park
• Significant level of opposition by local
  residents turbines will spoil the pristine
  natural surroundings, kill birds, and discourage
  tourism

7
Wind Turbine Siting

• Survey of opposition to wind energy found a
  common set of global issues with minor variation
  depending on local conditions
• Three key points to remember when considering
  siting issues
• A limited number of sites exist that are useful
  for wind turbines, as opposed to fossil fuel and
  nuclear facilities which easily fit into
  industrial settings
• Wind turbines need high quality wind it blows
  fast and often with minimal turbulence created by
  the surrounding landscape
• Turbines are more effective the higher they are
  located above the ground, which further
  contributes to one of the biggest issues in
  windmill siting disruption of the viewshed
• Disruption of the viewshed is cited the most
  often by opposition to new wind installations
• Local residents may resist the siting anyplace
  where turbines will be visible from a distance
• Includes offshore development, especially along
  the Northeast coast of the United States
• Some opponents object to any visible development
  of wind energy
• Wind power does not suffer as does nuclear
  energywhile specific installations are often
  opposed, wind energy is generally considered to
  be a boon for the environment
• (Turbine 50m Observer 1.5m Visual distance
  20mi)

8
Onshore vs. Offshore Siting

• Both onshore and offshore siting is highly
  criticized for its effect on the view-shed
• Destruction of pristine natural resources,
  reduction in tourism, and reduction in real
  estate values (opinions conflict on wind
  turbines effect on real estate values)
• Onshore concerns
• Wind turbines are assumed to and can create
  noise, cast a significant shadow, and create a
  flicker effect when the sun shines through the
  turbine blades
• These issues are easily avoided through careful
  planning and engineering.
• Three dimensional modeling accurately simulates
  viewshed concerns, turbine shadow, and flicker
• Turbine design and placement can ensure local
  residents are not disturbed by excessive noise
• Offshore concerns
• Commercial fishermen fear that turbine
  installation will interfere with the operation of
  commercial fishing nets and drags
• In Danish offshore installations, drags are not
  allowed in the turbine area
• In the proposed Cape Wind site off of Cape Cod,
  lines would be buried deep enough to allow them
• Sport fisherman and whale watching operations
  fear the effects on marine life
• The Danish installation (by far the most
  complete) has demonstrated
• Fish exist as they did previous to the turbine
  installations
• The turbine installations create reefs, which add
  to the diversity and health of ocean life (takes
  time)
• Once installation is complete, maintenance trips
  and any noise from the turbine operations disturb
  marine life no more than already present shipping
  operations
• Concerns over coolant oil leaks into the
  surrounding ocean have also been addressed by
  some groups who plan to use a nontoxic gaseous
  replacement

9
Assessing a Wind Resource

• Must have enough wind with the right
  characteristics
• Identify a wind energy site (typically through
  wind resource maps)
• Measure winds at the site for at least a year
  through all seasons (anecdotal information about
  a wind resource is insufficient) and make a
  long-term estimate
• Shorter measurement periods may be adequate for
  site screening if sufficient data is available
  for correlation
• For small wind must have enough open space to
  reduce wind turbulence from nearby trees and
  buildings
• For larger, multiple-turbine projects, a more
  extensive wind resource assessment using wind
  resource analysis and digital terrain models is
  necessary
• Multiple measurement locations and heights
• Wind direction
• Shear and terrain roughness
• Turbulence and turbine wake
• For example New England sites on ridgelines
  with tree cover introduce more complex terrain
  characteristics and require a wind resource
  assessment

10
Wind Turbine Siting

• No simple answer to the question of where wind
  turbines will be welcome
• Whether onshore or offshore, someone or something
  that somebody cares about will be affected
• For example opposition to drilling for oil in
  the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
• Only a small impact on humans but expected to
  disrupt a pristine natural area
• Which uncertainties and social costs will people
  be comfortable accepting?
• Who will be willing to accept these burdens in
  place of the status quo?
• Who will receive the benefit?

11
Siting Considerations

• Choosing a proper site for a wind turbine or farm
  is critical to a successful project
• While the most important factors may vary from
  site to site, in any given instance a single
  factor can undermine the success of an otherwise
  superlative project
• On the other hand, a site may be weak in one area
  but so strong in another area that it is viable,
  such as a site with very strong winds that is
  farther than normal from a transmission line
• A viable wind energy site generally includes the
  following key factors
• Attractive wind resource
• Landowner and community support
• Feasible permitting
• Compatible land use
• Nearby access to an appropriate electrical
  interconnect point
• Appropriate site conditions for access during
  construction and operations
• Aviation compatibility
• Favorable electricity market

12
Landowner and Community Support

• Landowner support
• After a prospective wind site is identified, the
  project developer contacts landowners to discuss
  their interest in hosting one or more wind
  turbines
• Most developers enter into a land lease
  arrangement with the landowner
• Landowner grants the developer the right to
  access the property for studies related to
  permits, installing a meteorological tower to
  measure the winds, and ultimately to construct
  and operate a wind project in exchange for a
  payment to the landowner
• For a multiple-turbine project where a large site
  is necessary to capture economies of scale,
  neighboring landowners are contacted to ensure
  that contiguous roads and electrical lines can be
  located between turbines
• Community support
• Critical to the success of a wind energy project,
  whether a large, multiple-turbine project or a
  single residential small wind turbine
• Build support by helping the community to
  understanding and appreciate the environmental
  benefits and, for larger projects, tax revenue
  benefits and employment benefits during
  construction
• Objections to the visibility of turbines
  represents the majority of objections from the
  local community
• For smaller, community-scale projects advocated
  or sponsored by the community (a city or town) or
  hosted by a part of the community (a school or
  other commercial or industrial end user),
  community support may be the driving force for
  the project
• For example, the Hull, MA, turbines and many of
  the other community-scaled wind developments
  throughout New England

13
Issues Affecting Public Acceptance of Wind Energy

• Wind farm developers seek locations with the
  greatest wind resource and the smallest
  population
• Mitigates human interaction and impact whenever
  possible
• Uninhabited areas are scarce, such as in the New
  England states, for example
• Many of the windy locations (including coastal
  areas and high elevations) are prized for their
  natural beauty and/or recreational value and are
  within sight of nearby communities, making
  community acceptance and support even more
  critical
• Local impact vs. societal benefits
• All forms of energy impact their surroundings,
  but society demands that its need for electric
  power plants be met
• The benefits of wind power, on a regional and
  broader scale, are widely accepted and the
  population, as a whole, supports wind power when
  compared to the alternatives
• After weighing the local impact versus the
  societal benefits, most communities embrace wind
  power proposals

14
Issues Affecting Public Acceptance of Wind Energy

• Where local concern or opposition to wind energy
  exists, several factors may be in play
• The idea of wind power is new to the local
  community
• Misinformation about wind projects and their
  impact on local communities may be circulating,
  initiated by proponents and/or opponents
• Without wind project experience, it is difficult
  for community members to know what to believe
• As noted earlier, disruption of the viewshed is
  the complaint most often cited by local
  opposition to new wind installations
• The American Wind Energy Association addresses
  most of these issues and others in "Wind Power
  Myths vs. Facts"

15
Cumulative Role of Wind Power

• In addition to local concerns is concern over the
  broader context or cumulative role of wind power
• If wind power currently comprises less than 1
  percent of a region's electricity supply
  portfolio, it is too small to be significant and
  the local community questions why it should host
  a facility
• To other opponents, their concern is just the
  opposite if one wind project is permitted on
  one scenic ridgeline, will all of the region's
  ridgelines and scenic vistas be open to wind farm
  development?
• The reality lies somewhere between these two
  extremes
• For example
• New Englands power supply mix consists of a
  range of sources, powered by natural gas, oil,
  coal, nuclear, hydroelectric, waste-to-energy,
  and biomass sources
• The contribution of each of these to the whole
  has, at one point in time, been negligible
• Having only recently reached the point of
  commercial viability and reliability, wind power
  is now the nation's (and the world's)
  fastest-growing power source
• In the near future, wind power will play an
  important role in New Englands electricity
  portfolio, perhaps similar to the 6 share now
  supplied by hydroelectricity (although it is not
  expected to contribute more than 10-15 of New
  England's portfolio)

16
Feasible Permitting

• The permitting process for wind energy
  installations is unique to the permitting
  jurisdiction, the characteristics and location of
  the site, and technical details of the project
• Studies that may be required to obtain permits
  may include, but are not limited to
• Avian and bat interaction
• Wildlife
• Plants
• Wetlands
• Archaeological and historical review
• Stream crossing and soil disturbance
• Aviation interaction
• Local zoning
• The permitting process typically has a public
  component where local residents have the
  opportunity to learn and comment about the project

17
Compatible Land Use

• A viable wind project must be compatible with the
  site, the surrounding area, humans, and wildlife
• Nearby residential development may make it
  difficult to maintain appropriate setbacks for
  zoning, sound, and public safety during
  construction and operation
• Property value may diminish if converting it to
  host wind turbines is not its highest value use
• Projects at higher elevations that are prone to
  icing must consider the proximity to the public
  during winter to ensure public safety
• Compatibility with wildlife is typically
  addressed as part of permitting
• Developers looking at prospective sites avoid
  major bird flyways and areas with known
  sensitive, threatened, or endangered species
• Many land uses are fully compatible with wind
  energy
• Farmland
• Land parcels are large and sparsely populated
• The amount of land taken out of production for
  the footprint of the wind turbines and ancillary
  roads is small when compared to the added revenue
  the landowner receives
• For example
• Many of the higher elevation sites in New England
  that are ideal for wind energy projects are under
  conservation easements or are located on state or
  federally owned land not open to wind development
• Other windy sites on mountain ridges or
  shorelines are highly valued for
  recreational/scenic purposes
• Opportunities do exist where land use and wind
  projects can be compatible, e.g., farming, timber
  harvesting, ridgelines with little public use or
  not under conservation easements, and industrial
  or commercial properties

18
Proximity to a Nearby Transmission Interconnection

• An optimal wind site may not be viable due to the
  cost and/or difficulty of interconnecting to the
  power grid
• For small wind installations, proximity to the
  electrical interconnection point (the home or
  business electric meter) will minimize
  construction and wiring costs
• For large projects, a nearby transmission line
  with the capacity to handle the power output of
  the wind installation is required
• Power lines and substations can be costly and
  time consuming to permit and build
• Costs depend on the area through which the line
  will run and the size of the line
• The project developer will work with the local
  utility and/or the region's power pool operator
  to determine the feasibility of connecting to the
  nearest transmission line
• The interconnection study will assess the impact
  of the wind energy generated and its electrical
  characteristics on the regional power grid
• If modifications are necessary, the study will
  identify the technical and financial requirements
• This rigorous and highly technical study is
  necessary to ensure continued reliability of the
  power grid as directed by the regional system
  operator (for Nebraska and the southern plains
  area this is the Southwest Power Pool, SPP)

19
Appropriate Site Conditionsfor Access During
Construction and Operations

• Ridgelines are attractive sites for larger wind
  energy installations to capture the more
  attractive wind resource at higher elevations
• Roads to these sites can be marginal or
  nonexistent
• Developers look for sites with existing adequate
  roads that can handle, or be modified to handle,
  the construction equipment needed to deliver the
  large turbine and tower components and the
  specialized crane to erect the turbine
• If no roads exist, the economic impact of
  constructing a new road must be considered

20
Aviation Compatibility

• Usually the highest objects in their area, wind
  turbines must be sited to avoid potential hazards
  to aviation
• The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has
  established regulations applicable to large
  structures such as wind towers
• Tower heights more than 200 feet, which includes
  most utility-scale wind turbines, require Federal
  Aviation Lighting and the filing of the FAA form
  7460-1 Notice of Proposed Construction or
  Alteration
• Each FAA region works with wind developers to
  design lighting requirements specific to that
  region and the site
• The FAA is currently working to create a national
  standard for wind turbine lighting
• Each FAA region would have the option to adopt
  these recommendations

21
Favorable Electricity Market

• The economics of small wind projects, under a net
  metering configuration, are primarily based on
  the retail electricity rate that the wind energy
  displaces
• In areas with high retail rates, the appropriate
  net metering legislation in place, and the right
  site, small wind can be a cost-effective
  supplement to a home or business's electricity
  supply
• A large wind project's revenue (and, hence, its
  economic viability) depends on the region's
  wholesale electricity market
• Attractive market prices and the ability to
  secure power purchase contracts for the energy
  from the wind project largely depend on the costs
  of the existing mix of electric supply sources in
  the market and the ability of this supply mix to
  meet the demand
• For example, in New England, the supply mix is
  predominantly natural gas and nuclear, with
  lesser amounts of coal, oil, and hydroelectric
• Wind will typically compete with supply sources
  that are more expensive and are used more
  immediately to meet the hourly fluctuations in
  demand currently this tends to be natural gas
• As natural gas prices continue to climb, the
  energy from wind will become more attractive from
  a cost perspective

22
Favorable Electricity Market

• Different locations within the region's power
  pool command different wholesale prices for
  electrical energy
• Due to certain locations' higher demand, a lack
  of sufficient generation capacity in that
  location, and constraints in the transmission
  system that limit the import of less expensive
  power from outside that location
• For example, within the New England Power Pool,
  energy is most valuable in southwest Connecticut
  (not a good location for wind) and the greater
  Boston area (where small wind projects along the
  coast may be viable) and less valuable in
  locations such as Maine (which has ample wind
  energy potential)
• Favorable wholesale market rules are critically
  important to the viability of a wind project
• Rules for physical interconnection to the power
  grid and how the wind project works in concert
  with the power requirements of the grid (i.e.,
  integration, balancing and scheduling, etc.)
  influence the value of the wind energy directly,
  and in some cases the cost or financial risk
  associated with operating the plant
• The specific electric characteristics of a wind
  project and its ability to satisfy the local
  regions' power quality requirements (such as
  through voltage support and other ancillary
  services) are also important

23
Exercise 11

• 1). Typically, turbines are spaced how far apart
  in the prevailing wind direction?
• 2 to 5 rotor diameters
• 100 feet
• 50 rotor diameters
• 5 to 10 rotor diameters

24
Exercise 11

• 2). Typically, turbines are spaced how far apart
  in the cross-wind direction.
• 2 to 5 rotor diameters
• 100 feet
• 50 rotor diameters
• 5 to 10 rotor diameters

25
Exercise 11

• 3). A typical setback distance of a turbine from
  property lines or other structures is
• half the turbine height.
• 1.5 times the turbine hub height.
• 5 to 10 times the turbine hub height.
• not needed.

26
Exercise 11

• 4). The top reason that wind turbine
  installations are opposed is generally in regard
  to
• noise produced.
• disruption of the viewshed.
• micro-weather concerns.
• cost of operation.

27
Exercise 11

• 5). A viable wind energy site generally includes
  the following key factors (list all that may
  apply).
• Access to an electrical interconnect point
• Landowner and community support
• Attractive wind resource
• Feasible permitting
• Site access during construction and operations

28
Exercise 11

• 6). Permitting for an installation may involve
  environmental or ecological impact estimates on
• Wetlands
• Birds
• Plants
• Bats
• B. and D.
• All the above

29
Exercise 11

• 7). Federal Aviation Lighting and the filing of
  the FAA form 7460-1 Notice of Proposed
  Construction or Alteration are necessary for
  turbines extending to or above
• 200 m
• an elevation of 1,500 feet above sea level
• 200 ft.
• only near airports

30
Exercise 11

• 8). The study done to determine the feasibility
  of connecting to the nearest transmission line,
  and assess the impact of the wind energy
  generated and its electrical characteristics on
  the regional power grid is called
• an interconnection study
• a power transfer study
• a funding study
• a line routing study

31
Exercise 11

• 9). The regional transmission authority that all
  Nebraska utilities are part of is
• National Renewable Energy Laboratory, NREL
• Midwest Independent Transmission System Operator,
  MISO
• Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, FERC
• Southwest Power Pool, SPP

32
Exercise 11

• 10). A large wind project's revenue, and hence
  its economic viability, depends on the region's
  wholesale electricity market.
• True
• False

33
Impacts on the Human Environment

• Visual
• The primary impact of wind power is visual as
  wind turbines must be exposed to the wind in
  prominent locations
• It is impossible to quantify esthetic
  considerations
• Public policy and planning governs whether a
  community is willing to accept a visual impact in
  return for clean power
• FAA lighting
• The FAA requires objects over 200 feet tall
  i.e., all commercialscale wind turbines to be
  lit
• Specific lighting requirements vary from site to
  site lights may be red or white, constant or
  flashing
• Property values and tourism
• The Renewable Energy Policy project studied
  25,000 property transactions in the viewshed of
  wind projects, compared them to similar sites and
  found no evidence of reduced property values
• Noise
• Wind turbines are relatively quiet however, how
  sound carries depends on terrain and wind
  patterns
• Wind turbines should be about three times the hub
  height or more from residences
• The sound generated from wind turbines can be
  compared to the sound level of a refrigerator
  from about 300 ft
• TV interference
• Todays fiberglass composite wind turbine blades
  are unlikely to cause any interference with
  broadcast signals unlike the former metal blades
  which caused ghosting
• Compatibility with other human land uses
• Wind turbines can be found around the world
  safely coexisting with many land uses, including
  schools, highways, hiking trails, and farms

34
Sound

• The majority of wind installations are in quiet
  rural areas
• Receptors may be sheltered from the wind
• Topography may amplify sound
• Sound perception is highly subjective
• An acoustical consultant may be helpful

35
Comparative Noise Level
Equipment Noise Level in deciBels (dB)
Jet Airplane 140-150
Pneumatic Drill 120
Industrial Noise 100
Stereo Music 90
Inside Car 80
Office Noise 60
Home 50
Wind Turbine 45
Bedroom 30
Whispering 20
Falling Leaves 10

• Rotor three-bladed
• Smoother flow
• Configuration upwind
• Tower shadowing reduced
• Blades redesigned
• Less vibration
• Gearbox nacelle soundproofing

How loud is the sound from a utility-scale
turbine? 45 decibels at 350 meters
36

• Wind turbine noise (at 200 m) is as loud as your
  refrigerator heard from the living room

37
Shadow Flicker (Visual Pollution)

• Occurs when the sun is low in the sky and the
  sunlight is interrupted by a rotating turbine
  blade
• Flicker is a function of season, latitude, and
  time of day
• It is a temporary phenomenon as the sun moves
  across sky
• Flicker can be minimized by proper setbacks
• The developer may negotiate a sight easement

38
Ice Shedding

• Small pieces of ice may be thrown
• Larger pieces of ice usually drop within a
  blades length from the towerthey are not thrown
• Recommended setback is 1.5 x total height
• Tens of thousands of turbines are installed
  worldwide, and there has been no reported case of
  injury

39
Safety

• Turbines have tubular towers with locked doors
  the exterior cannot be climbed
• Blade throw is extremely rare today, even in a
  catastrophic failure
• Setbacks of 3-5 rotor diameters are common
• A turbine failed at Weatherford, OK, May 7, 2005
• Winds were light at the time
• The tower snapped
• No injuries occurred
• The cause is under investigation
• The turbine was engineered to international
  safety standards (Germanischer Lloyd, Det Norske
  Veritas)
• This was an isolated incident

40
Property Values

• Phoenix Economic Development Group study, October
  2002
• Views of wind turbines will not negatively
  impact property values. Based on a nation-wide
  survey conducted of tax assessors in areas with
  wind power projects, we found no evidence
  supporting the claim that views of wind farms
  decrease property values.
• Renewable Energy Policy Project (REPP) study, May
  2003
• The statistical analysis of all property sales
  in the view shed and the comparable community
  provides no evidence that wind development has
  harmed property values within the view shed.
  There is no valid empirical support for claims
  that wind development will harm property values.

41
Wildlife Impacts
42
What Kills Birds? Human Causes

• Glass Windows Bird Deaths a year more than 100
  million
• Dr. Daniel Klem of Muhlenberg College, studied
  bird collisions with windows over 20 yr., His
  conclusion glass kills more birds than any other
  human-related factor
• House Cats Bird Deaths a year 100 Million
• The National Audubon Society says 100 million
  birds a year fall prey to cats. Dr. Stan Temple
  of the University of Wisconsin estimates that in
  Wisconsin alone, about 7 million birds a year are
  killed by cats
• Automobiles/Trucks Bird Deaths a year 50 to 100
  Million
• Birds killed by cars and trucks on the nation's
  highways is 50-100 million a yr., National
  Institute for Urban Wildlife and U.S. Fish and
  Wildlife Service
• Electric Transmission Line Collisions Bird Deaths
  a year up to 174 million
• U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimates millions
  of birds die each year as a result of colliding
  with transmission lines
• Agriculture Bird Deaths a year 67 million
• Pesticides likely poison an estimated 67 million
  birds per yr., Smithsonian Institution. Cutting
  hay may kill up to a million more birds a year.
• Land Development Bird Deaths a year unknown
• Suburban sprawl is a silent but deadly killer.
  The National Audubon Society says loss of bird
  habitat is the greatest threat to bird
  populations.
• Communication Towers Bird Deaths a year 4 to 10
  million
• U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimates that
  bird collisions with tall, lighted communications
  towers and their guy wires results in 4-10
  million bird deaths a yr.
• Stock Tank Drowning Bird Deaths a year unknown
• U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service biologists and
  other conservationists believe that large numbers
  of birds inadvertently drown in livestock water
  tanks.
• Oil and Gas Extraction Bird Deaths a year 1 to 2
  million
• The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service reports that
  up to 2 million birds died landing in oil pits to
  bathe and drink in 1997. Netting has improved
  that situation somewhat. There are no overall
  estimates for the number of birds affected by oil
  and gas spills and oil and gas extractions (and
  transport)
• Logging and Strip Mining Bird Deaths a year
  unknown

Curry Kerlinger, LLC has compiled the following
information from environmental organizations and
government agencies. info_at_currykerlinger.com
Dick Curry, 1734 Susquehannock Drive, Mc Lean,
VA 22101, [phone], rca1817_at_aol.com Paul
Kerlinger, P.O. Box 453, Cape May Point, New
Jersey 08212, [phone]
43
Wind Turbine Effect on WildlifeFluffy is
Dangerous!

• Bird mortality due to wind turbines became an
  environmental concern with an abnormally high
  number of bird fatalities at the Altamont Pass
  Wind Resource Area (ARWRA) in Northern California
• The 5,400-turbine project in Altamont killed at
  estimated 800 to 1,300 birds a year
• Prompted many studies on avian mortality due to
  wind turbines
• Studies have since revealed that the bird
  mortality rate seen at Altamont is unusual and
  can be attributed to technology used during
  construction and poor site selection
• It lies along the path of a major migration route
  where many raptors nest and hunt
• For all combined species, data collected in the
  U.S. outside of California revealed an average
  1.83 avian fatalities and 0.006 raptor fatalities
  per year
• This compares favorably with mortality rates
  caused by window strikes and domesticated cats
• A less understood phenomenon is bat fatalities
  due to tower and turbine blade strikes
• In 2003, more than 2,000 bats were killed at a
  44-turbine project in Thomas, West Virginia
• Biologists have theories but no consensus on what
  causes bats to fly into towers and turbine blades
  
• While wildlife interacting with wind turbines is
  an important issue, it is manageable through
  siting and technologythe key is to make sure it
  is managed
• The argument against wind energy due to avian
  mortality is put into context by the Audubon
  Society, which states that global warming and its
  concurrent loss of habitat is the greatest threat
  to wildlife today
• Wind energy generations potential in displacing
  greenhouse gas emissions makes it acceptable in
  this context

44
Avian Impact (no pun intended)
No. Known or Suspected Risk Factors for Avian Collision Altamont Pass, CA Typical Modern Wind Installation in New England
1 Large concentrations of turbines 5,400 (in 2001) 1-40
2 Lattice towers allow raptors to perch Lattice Tubular towers do not attract perching
3 Fast rotating turbine blades 50-72 rpm Slow rotating blades 12-18 rpm
4 Closely spaced turbines 80-100 ft. (lt30M) Widely spaced turbines gt650 ft. (gt200M)
5 Turbines in steep valleys or canyons Steep valleys and canyons Turbines on flat terrain, rolling hills, or ridge tops (no steep hills except sides of ridges)
6 Prey base to attract raptors Large
7 Raptor and susceptible species Present
8 FAA lighting attracting night-migrating birds Often unlit Risk is present and may account for the majority of night-time avian collisions with modern turbines
The magnitude of these risks at a particular
site would be addressed in a Phase 1 Avian Risk
study.
Modern wind turbines kill on average one to two
birds per turbine, per year.
45
Bats and Wind Power

• Bat fatalities have recently become an issue in
  the wind power industry because fatalities have
  been documented at wind power sites where
  post-construction bird studies have been
  conducted
• Because of these fatalities, various wildlife
  agencies and environmental organizations have
  become interested in determining whether a
  problem exists
• Bat fatalities have been studied at nearly the
  same number of wind power facilities as have bird
  fatalities
• Data are now available from more than a dozen
  wind plants across the U.S.
• Here's what we know about this issue
• The numbers of bats involved are small at most
  wind plants, although in Minnesota and Wyoming
  moderate numbers have been found
• Many of the bats involved in collisions with wind
  turbines were apparently migrating
• About seven species of bats have been documented
  to collide with wind turbines
• Bats involved are primarily common, tree-dwelling
  bats with widespread geographic distributions
• Endangered or threatened species have not been
  involved
• Population impacts seem unlikely
• Bat fatalities have not emerged as a significant
  issue at wind plants in Europe
• Migrating bats may turn off their sonar causing
  them to fly into towers
• Small numbers of bats also collide with
  communication towers

46
Project Overview
47
Finding Suitable Sites

• 3. Sufficient Landowner Interest
• Meet with landowners to gauge interest
• Will the project be supported by the community?
• Enough land to develop a project (approx 4000
  acres for an 80 MW project)
• Approx. 100 acres per turbine (1 acre 43,560
  ft.2 4,047 m2)

Photo Credit Alice Buschkamp
48
Moving Forward

• Sites that meet the previous criteria now need
• A project company and funding
• Cooperation Agreements with Landowners (initial
  land rights)
• On-site wind data
• Initiate fatal flaw review
• Begin transition from prospecting into
  development

Photo Credit Alice Buschkamp
49
Turbine Layout Plan

• What factors into a Turbine Layout Plan?
• Setbacks applied to project acreage to obtain
  buildable area.
• Within buildable area, wind resource and
  constructability used to determine turbine sites.
  
• Landowners approve locations of turbines and
  access roads.
• Other factors include microwave beam paths,
  environmental issues, pipelines, etc.
• Final plan used to submit for permits.

50
Center Pivot Irrigators

• You Cant Always Avoid Center Pivots
• Nebraska has more sprinkler irrigated land than
  any other state 72
• Look to avoid pivots where economically feasible.
• Laredo Ridge had a handful of parcels where
  turbines ended up inside pivot.
• Source http//cropwatch.unl.edu/web/cropswater
  /stategraph

Photo Credit Mark Grundmayer
51
Energy Production Estimate

• Used to determine how much power a given wind
  turbine or farm will produce in a year
• Most important value is the Net Capacity Factor
  or the of power produced versus maximum rating
• Individual turbine NCF and rankings used to make
  adjustments to increase production
• Also estimate losses due to wake effect and line
  loss

52
Wind Turbine Lease

• 20-25 year land lease for each turbine site and
  associated access roads and underground cables
• 100 x 100 square centered on turbine base plus
  16 gravel access road is the only ground taken
  out of production
• Rent paid annually per turbine either by MW or
  of revenue of entire farm
• All commercial terms mirror any power purchase
  agreement that is obtained
• Contains provisions for crop damages,
  decommissioning, repowering, etc

Photo Credit Alice Buschkamp
53
Obtaining Permits

• Obtaining all permits is the critical path for
  a project and can take two years or longer
• Begin interaction with Federal and State agencies
  as soon as possible
• Environmental protection is an important focus
  (Army Corps, USFWS, NGPC)
• Local zoning process is the main forum for
  communities to discuss wind development
• Also need approvals from the FAA, FCC and other
  agencies

Photo Credit Mark Grundmayer
54
Interconnection and PPAs

• Interconnection process is another critical path
  issue taking at least a year
• Involves working with transmission owner (NPPD),
  regional transmission operator (SPP) and power
  purchaser through complicated regulatory process
• Available capacity dictates project size
• Could add to the project depending on
  upgrades needed to the system

55
Finishing Up

• Finalize turbine layout plan
• Obtain final FAA approvals
• Finish entitlements (leases, easements, local
  permits, etc)
• Finalize energy production estimate
• Execute Power Purchase Agreement
• Execute Interconnection Agreement
• Commence construction

Photo Credit Alice Buschkamp
56
Construction

• Construction takes about a year
• It takes 2500 person-hours to construct each
  turbine or approx 1.25 full-time jobs for one
  year
• The crawler crane takes 18 semi-truckloads to
  deliver to the site
• Each foundation is a continuous pour needing
  60-80 cement truck loads
• One full-time job created for every 10 MWs
• A typical 80 MW windfarm generates enough power
  for 24,000 houses

Photo Credit Mark Grundmayer
57
Exercise 12

• 1). Some impacts that wind turbines have on
  humans are
• Noise and the viewshed.
• Possible electromagnetic interference with radios
  and television.
• Interference with other land uses.
• A. and C.
• All the above

58
Exercise 12

• 2). Compared to sitting inside a moving car,
  large wind turbines are
• much louder
• louder
• quieter
• about the same loudness

59
Exercise 12

• 3). Based on studies done in 2002 and 2003, wind
  turbines within sight of residential areas caused
  property values to
• increase considerably
• decrease
• slightly increase
• be unaffected

60
Exercise 12

• 4). Glass windows in buildings and predators,
  such as domestic cats, kill many more birds each
  year than wind turbines.
• true
• Not clear from the statistics
• false

61
Exercise 12

• 5). For initial project planning, how much land
  should be allowed for proper spacing of large
  turbines (1 to 2 MW each) in a wind farm?
• 100 acres per turbine
• 100 sq. ft. per turbine
• ¼ section per turbine
• Determined by local zoning restrictions

62
Exercise 12

• 6). Land leases are typically contracted for
• 1 year at a time
• rolling 50 year window
• 20-25 years
• 10 years

63
Exercise 12

• 7). The Capacity Factor (sometimes called Net
  Capacity Factor) refers to the
• ratio of the footprint of a wind farm compared to
  the total land leased.
• ratio of the average power produced over a year
  compared to the nameplate (maximum) power rating
• ratio of hours each turbine is in operation
  compared to hours under maintenance
• number of hours each month that a turbine
  produces its nameplate power.

64
Exercise 12

• 8). The footprint of a large turbine occupies
  approximately
• all the land except as used by a pivot irrigation
  system
• 100 ft. x 100 ft. plus the access road to it
• 10 ft. x 10 ft. plus the access road to it
• 10 acres

65
Exercise 12

• 9). There are at least two contracts that must be
  negotiated between a developer and the local
  utility. One is to be able to connect the wind
  farm to the local transmission system and the
  other is to determine the price of kWh sold to
  the utility. These are typically called
• CBED agreement and green tag purchase contract.
• A net metering agreement and a regional
  transmission study
• investment tax credit application and avoided
  cost contract.
• An interconnection agreement and a power purchase
  agreement.

66
Exercise 12

• 10). During construction of a large wind farm, a
  turbines concrete foundation is poured
• Using 60 to 80 truck-loads of concrete
• continuously
• In 2 ft. layers and allowed to dry between the
  pouring of each layer
• A. and C.
• A. and B.
• B. and C.
• All the above