ORE, WASTE and MINERALOGY

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ORE, WASTE and MINERALOGY

• What is an ore?
• What is waste?
• What is the role of mineralogy in MMPE?
• How do these questions change for different
  commodities?

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Downstream Processing

• Mine/mill complex
• produces ore or concentrate or unrefined
  metal/product
• product transported by airplane, rail, truck or
  ship to smelter or refinery
• if leaching is used at mine/mill, unrefined
  metal or final product is produced
• Smelting
• pyrometallurgical processing (multi-stage)
• roasting to partially remove/control sulfur
  content
• melting to separate oxides from sulfides (flux
  and slag)
• oxidation to remove sulfur and iron
• need SO2 control and slag disposal system

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Downstream Processing

• Leaching
• hydrometallurgical processing
• vat leach, agitation leach, heap leach, in-situ
  leach
• Pressure Oxidation or Biological Leaching
• solid/liquid separation or ion adsorption process
• solution purification (solvent extraction/ion
  exchange)
• need residue disposal method (dewatering/storage)
  
• Refining
• electrometallurgical processing
• electrowinning to recover metals from solution
• electrorefining to purify unrefined metal
• treatment of slime deposits for PMs recovery

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What is an Ore?
Definition An ore is a mass of mineralization
within the Earth's surface which can be mined -
at a particular place - at a particular
time - at a profit.
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What is Waste?
Definition Waste is mineralized rock that is
removed from a mine to provide access to an
underlying or nearby orebody containing at least
one mineral of value. Types of Waste -
footwall material (typically barren material) -
hangingwall material (typically contains
sulfides) - gangue material contained within the
ore
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What is Waste?
Waste rock can become ore at some later time. -
metal/commodity prices can change - other values
are discovered within the waste - new technology
is developed - environmental protection costs
become too high - ore has been exhausted too
costly to close mine
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Mineralogy in Mineral Processing
Types of minerals in the ore have major impact on
operation and control of the processing plant. -
relative abundance of ore minerals - feed grade
and concentrate grade - types of gangue
minerals - slime content (clays, etc.) - pH
effects (alkali rock) - pyrite and pyrrhotite
(iron sulfides) - association of ore and gangue
minerals - liberation characteristics -
disseminated vs. massive
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Process Mineralogy
- establish regular mineralogical analysis of
mill feed and other process streams - perform a
size-by-size analysis of rock and ore mineral
contents and associations - relative
abundance - free/locked ratios of grinding
circuit streams - perform metallurgical testwork
on ore samples containing different
mineralogy Virtual Atlas of Opaque and Ore
Minerals in their Associations lt
http//www.smenet.org/opaque-ore/ gt
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Process Mineralogy
- establish metallurgical performance of each
process stage for each ore mineral type -
determine size ranges where losses occur and
examine minerals responsible for these losses -
establish impact of impurities on product
quality - use all the above information to
decide on process changes to improve plant
performance with respect to recovery and product
quality
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Copper Ores
Minerals Sulfides
Oxides chalcopyrite - CuFeS2 cuprite -
Cu2O bornite - Cu4FeS5 malachite -
Cu2CO3(OH)2 covellite - CuS pseudomalachite -
Cu5(PO4)2(OH)4 chalcocite (Cu2S) azurite -
Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2 cubanite (CuFe2S3) chrysocolla
- CuSiO3nH2O - (Cu,Al)2H2Si2O5(OH)4nH2O Ga
ngue Minerals pyrite quartz
feldspars silicates clays arsenopyrite
Mn-wad calcite dolomite
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Copper Ores
Ore Types Porphyry igneous rock of large
crystal size (phenocrysts) embedded in a ground
mass. Typical mineralization is disseminated
chalcopyrite with molybdenite (MoS). Massive pyr
ite/pyrrhotite host with chalcopyrite,
pentlandite, sphalerite, arsenopyrite,
galena. Vein-type quartz host with veins of
chalcopyrite, chalcocite and pyrite
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Copper Ores
Problems Liberation fine grinding may be
required. Recovery oxide/sulfide ratio
changes, presence of slime particles, poor
recovery of coarse copper minerals. Product poor
liberation, presence of As, Bi, Pb Quality high
H2O, variable Cu grade Separation poor
distribution of Co, Zn, Pb, etc.
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Copper Ores

• Anhedral chalcopyrite (yellow, top right) is
  inter-grown with quartz (light grey, right
  centre). Pounded to euhedral rutile (grey-white,
  centre left) is disseminated throughout the host
  rock. The poorly polished dark grey gangue is
  phyllosilicate. - El Salvador, Chile

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Copper Ores Concentrating

• Simplest Copper Flotation Circuit

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Copper/Gold Ores Concentrating

• Copper/Gold Flotation Circuit

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Copper/Moly Ores Concentrating

• Copper/Moly Flotation Circuit

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Copper Ores Concentrating

• Multiple Sulfide Differential Flotation Circuit

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Copper Ores Concentrating

• Mixed Oxide/Sulfide Copper Flotation Circuit

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Copper Ores Direct Leaching

• Copper Oxide Processing to final metal

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Copper Ores Concentrating

• Copper Oxide Processing - LPF

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Copper Ores Concentrating

• T.O.R.C.O. Processing of Cu Ores (Segregation
  Process)
• - Requires at least 4Cu

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Copper Downstream Processing

• Kidd-Creek Smelter flowsheet

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Copper Anode Casting Wheel
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Nickel Ores
Minerals pentlandite (NiFeS)
chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) Gangue Minerals pyrrhot
ite (FexSy where xy 0.9-1.1) quartz feldspars
silicates clays Mn-wad calcite
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Nickel Ores
Ore Types Massive pentlandite and
chalcopyrite in relatively equal quantities in
massive pyrrhotite (FexSy). Massive low copper
content in pyrrhotite host. Massive presence of
clay slimes, talc chalcopyrite/pentlandite with
pyrrhotite
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Nickel Ores
Problems Ni-associations 3 types - as
pentlandite - solid-solution in
pyrrhotite - "flame" pentlandite in
pyrrhotite Liberation fine grinding may be
required for "flame" pentlandite. Recovery so
lid-solution losses. magnetic vs. flotable
pyrrhotite Product clay contamination Quality hi
gh H2O, variable Cu/Ni grade
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Nickel Ores
Problems Cu-Ni separation - at milling
stage - at the smelting stage - at
the matte separation stage Pyrrhotite
- magnetic (low intensity) for Recovery
monoclinic FeS (xy gt 1.0)
- flotation for hexagonal FeS (xy
lt 1.0) Synthetic Minerals heazlewoodite (Ni3S2)
chalcocite (Cu2S) Fe-Ni alloy (PMs)
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Nickel Ores
Chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, pentlandite, and
cubanite - Stillwater, Montana, USA Notice flame
pentlandite in chalcopyrite
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Nickel Ores
125µm
Pyrrhotite (brown) has pentlandite (light brown,
higher reflectance, centre) exsolution bodies as
flames, aligned along (0001). Minor amounts of
chalcopyrite (yellow, centre right) are
associated with cleavage and fractures within
pyrrhotite. Silicates are black.
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Nickel Ore
Rhomb-shaped areas of deeply etched hexagonal
pyrrhotite are surrounded by more lightly etched
monoclinic pyrrhotite, which is the main phase.
Very lightly etched monoclinic pyrrhotite
(pale brown, bottom right) has a rim of granular
pentlandite (light brown, higher reflectance).
Pyrrhotite is intergrown with chalcopyrite
(yellow, centre) and encloses magnetite (grey,
top left).
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Cu/Ni Downstream Processing

• Nickel
• Typical Mine/Mill Treatment

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Downstream Processing

• Nickel
• Matte Separation processing

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Lead/Zinc Ores
Minerals galena (PbS) sphalerite (ZnxFeyS)
where xy 0.0-0.1) marmatite (high-Fe
sphalerite) anglesite (PbSO4) cerrusite
(PbCO3) smithsonite (ZnCO3) hydrozincite
(Zn5(CO3)2(OH)6) hemimorphite
(Zn4Si2O7(OH)2H2O) Gangue Minerals pyrite/marc
asite (FeS2) quartz pyrrhotite (FexSy)
feldspars silicates clays
Mn-wad calcite/dolomite/limestone
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Lead/Zinc Ores
Ore Types Massive galena and sphalerite in a
variety of relative quantities in massive
pyrite/marcasite (FeS2). Massive carbonate-hoste
d ore - Mississippi Valley. Massive presence of
clay slimes, talc galena/sphalerite with
pyrrhotite
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Lead/Zinc Ores
Ore Types Pb/Zn galena, sphalerite and
pyrite Cu/Pb chalcopyrite, galena and
pyrite Cu/Zn chalcopyrite, sphalerite and
pyrite Cu/Pb/Zn chalcopyrite, galena,
sphalerite and pyrite
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Lead/Zinc Ores
Problems Pb-Zn separation - two-stage
flotation - differential (Pb first/Zn
second) Cu-Pb-Zn ores - combined
bulk/selective and differential flotation
- Cu/Pb bulk followed by
Zn float Pb-Zn oxide flotation use of
sulfidizing agents
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Lead/Zinc Ores
Problems Zn depression ZnS is readily
activated by Cu ions Cu/Pb separation essential
to avoid smelter penalties Liberation
difficult to assess without mineralogy Product Z
n conc gt 55-58Zn Quality Pb conc gt 60-65Pb Cu
conc gt 25Cu
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Copper/Lead/Zinc Ores
Euhedral arsenopyrite (white, high reflectance,
left) is inter- grown with galena (light
blue- white with triangular cleavage pits,
centre), chalcopyrite (yellow, centre) and
sphalerite (light grey, centre right), with
fine chalcopyrite inclusions (top left) or
submicroscopic chalcopyrite (grey to brown-grey,
centre right). A lath of poorly polished
molybdenite (light grey, centre) is enclosed
within chalcopyrite and galena and has partially
rimmed arsenopyrite (bottom right). Minor amounts
of rutile (light grey) form acicular crystals
within the gangue (right centre). Black areas
are polishing pits.
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Copper/Lead/Zinc Ores
Reniform (kidney-shaped) sphalerite (light grey,
centre) is interbanded with galena (white,
centre bottom) and chalco- pyrite (yellow) in
successive growth rings. Chalcopyrite in the
centre of the right sphalerite Has replaced
poorly crystalline pyrite (white, top right).
Chalcopyrite can be seen to have higher relief
than galena (bottom left). The gangue (dark
grey) is sulfate. Black areas are polishing pits.
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Lead/Zinc Downstream Processing
Simplified Lead Extraction and Refining
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Lead/Zinc Downstream Processing
Simplified Zinc Extraction and Refining
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Iron Ores
Minerals hematite (Fe2O3)
magnetite (Fe3O4) martite
(Fe2O3Fe3O4) goethite/limonite
(Fe2O3nH2O) siderite (FeCO3)
ilmenite (FeTiO3) Gangue Minerals quartz
feldspars silicates clays MnO2
calcite
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Iron Ores
Ore Types high grade hematite Carajas,
Brazil (pure mineral) low grade hematite
Shefferville ores, N. Quebec
(yellow/red/blue ores) hematite/magnetite
Iron Ore Company of Canada disseminated
magnetite Taconite ores in Minnesota hydrated/w
eathered ores Itabirite and Limonitic
ores carbonate ores Siderite ores (Sault
St. Marie)
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Iron Ores
Problems magnetite recovery associations with
hematite gravity separation fine size
liberation flotation reverse flotation of
gangue Product SiO2 content lt
2 Quality product size (lump, sinter feed,
pellet feed) magnetite content
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Samarco Iron Ore Flowsheet
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Samarco Iron Ore Concentrator
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Samarco Iron Ore Pipeline
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Labrador Iron Mining - Shefferville
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Iron Ore Processing

• Iron Ore Pellet Plant

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Iron Ore Pellets
Malmberget, Norway
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Iron Ore Pig Iron
Fe2O3 3CO ? 2Fe 3CO2 2 C(s) O2(g) ? 2
CO(g) 3 Fe2O3(s) CO(g) ? 2 Fe3O4(s)
CO2(g) Fe3O4(s) CO(g) ? 3 FeO(s)
CO2(g) CaCO3(s) ? CaO(s) CO2(g) FeO(s) CO(g)
? Fe(s) CO2(g) C(s) CO2(g) ? 2 CO(g) Final
Products CaO SiO2 ? CaSiO3 Fayalite
Slag Pig Iron (95 Fe 5C)
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Iron Ore Blast Furnace
Blast Furnace
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Iron Ore Steel-Making
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Uranium Ores

• Producers
• Canada
• Australia
• Kazakhstan
• Users
• US / Canada
• Japan / Korea / China
• France

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Downstream Processing

• Uranium Ore processing

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Uranium Mines - Australia
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Uranium Resources
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Uranium Reserves

• Total World Reserves 5,404,000 tonnes Uranium

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Uranium Reserves (x1,000 t) (2009)
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Uranium Production - annual

• Total World (2010) 53,663 tonnes U
• 132,463 tonnes U3O6

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Monthly Spot Price of Uranium
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Copper-Uranium Ore
Olympic Dam Mine, Australia
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Olympic Dam Refinery, Australia
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Olympic Dam Refinery, Australia
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Olympic Dam Refinery, Australia
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Coal Processing

• Two Products
• Thermal Coal
• Metallurgical Coal

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Coal Processing
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Downstream Processing

• Coal processing

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Coal Processing
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Coal Processing
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Coal Processing
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Gold Ores
Minerals native gold electrum tellurides as
sociated with pyrite and/or other
sulfides Gangue quartz pyrite arsenopyrite
feldspars calcite/dolomite limestone other
rock-type minerals
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Gold Processing

• Gold processing options

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Gold Flakes
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Gold Panning
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Gold Flakes
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Grinding and Cyanide Leaching
Musslewhite Mine, Ontario
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Dissolution of Gold in CyanideElsner's Equation
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Precipitation of Au from Solution
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Smelting Gold
Campbell Mine, Ontario
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Pouring Slag
Musslewhite Mine, Ontario
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Pouring Gold Bullion Bars
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What its all about!
Gold Bullion
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MINE LIFE CYCLE, DOWNSTREAM PROCESSING, AND
SUSTAINABILITY

• STAGE 1 - Exploration and Assessment
• STAGE 2 - Construction
• STAGE 3 - Operation
• STAGE 4 - Closure

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MINE LIFE CYCLE, DOWNSTREAM PROCESSING, AND
SUSTAINABILITY

• STAGE 1 - Exploration and Assessment (1-10 years)
• Exploration - Geophysics
• Exploration - Drilling (1/10)
• Geology - Analytical and Mineralogical Assessment
• Economic Feasibility Assessment (1/10)
• Orebody Modeling (1/10)
• Mine Planning and Metallurgical Testwork

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Mine Life Cycle (continued)

• STAGE 2 Construction (0.5-2 years )
• Mine
• Shaft-sinking tunnel/stope development (U/G)
• Adit tunnel/stope development (mountain-top)
• Top soil removal, key-cut, haul road (Open-Pit)
• Plant
• Site Preparation, Foundations, Construction of
  buildings
• Procurement and Installation of Equipment
• Waste and Tailing Disposal
• Site Selection and Preparation
• Construction of Initial Coffer Dam for tailing
  disposal

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Mine Life Cycle (continued)

• STAGE 3 - Operations ( 3 - 100 years )
• Mine
• Blast, Load, Haul, Dump
• Transport (hoist, convey, truck, rail), Stockpile
• Safely Store Waste (on site or in-mine)
• Mill
• Crush, Grind (comminution)
• Physical Separation (maybe chemical)
  (beneficiation)
• Thicken and Filter (dewater)
• Safely Store Tailing

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Mine Life Cycle (continued)

• STAGE 3 - Operations ( 3 - 100 years )
• Waste Disposal
• Dump
• Contour, Spread top soil
• Hydro-seed and plan for final drainage
• Tailing Disposal
• Plan for Lifts as Tailing Dam builds
• Control water levels
• Recover water for recycle
• Revegetate dam walls

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Mine Life Cycle (continued)

• STAGE 4 - Closure( 1 20?? years )
• Mine
• Flood Pit
• Seal Underground workings
• Long-term Acid Rock Drainage plan for waste dumps
• Mill
• Salvage Equipment
• Raze Buildings
• Contour and reseed site
• Long-term ARD plan for tailing dam

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Sustainability

• Important Factors
• Technical
• Economic
• Social/Political
• Environmental
• Past mining activities focused on only the first
  two
• Last two are now equally, if not more important

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Sustainability

• A Mine must plan for closure before it starts up
• A mining company must always consider local
  communities in all parts of the world
• As an industry, we must find ways to enhance our
  image and influence government decision-making
• Future methods must reduce the mining 'footprint'
• no more open pits (????)
• waste returned to the mine
• processing at the face
• robotics and remote-mining systems

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Sustainability

• BC Mining Industry must encourage its members to
  institute vertical integration policies
• We need to invest in much more value-added
  processing (i.e. smelting and refining in BC)
• Downstream manufacturing industries must be
  encouraged to develop in BC
• Provide necessary systems to begin significant
  recycling of metals and other materials in
  Pacific North-West

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Sustainability

• Social/Political Issues
• Land Use
• Government policies
• The Influence of Activism
• Environmental concerns
• Aboriginal peoples and treaties
• Need for jobs and a diversified economy
• In BC, the Tatsenshini/Windy Craggy decision has
  had important long-term impact on Mining
• Similarly, Delgamuk decision and Nishka Treaty
  are important to the future of BC's mining
  industry