Chapter 1 Introduction

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Chapter 1Introduction
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Definition

• Application of science to criminal and civil laws
  
• Application of science to those criminal and
  civil laws
• Enforced by police agencies in a criminal justice
  system

INTRODUCTION
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History and Development of Forensic Science

• Important Names

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History

• Mathieu Orfilathe father of forensic toxicology.
  
• Alphonse Bertilliondevised the first scientific
  system of personal identification in 1879.
• Francis Galtonconducted the first definitive
  study of fingerprints and their classification.

INTRODUCTION
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History

• Leone Lattesdeveloped a procedure to determine
  blood type from dried bloodstains.
• Calvin Goddardused a comparison microscope to
  determine if a particular gun fired a bullet.
• Albert Osborndeveloped the fundamental
  principles of document examination.

INTRODUCTION
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Figure 11   Bertillons system of bodily
measurements as used for the identification of an
individual. Courtesy Sirchie Finger Print
Laboratories, Inc., Youngsville, N.C.,
www.sirchie.com.
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History

• Walter McCroneutilized microscopy and other
  analytical methodologies to examine evidence.
• Hans Grosswrote the first treatise describing
  the application of scientific principles to the
  field of criminal investigation.

INTRODUCTION
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History

• Edmond Locardincorporared Gross principles
  within a workable crime laboratory.
• Locards Exchange Principlestates that when a
  criminal comes in contact with an object or
  person, a cross-transfer of evidence occurs.

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The Crime Lab

• Rapid growth
• Lack of national and regional planning and
  coordination.
• Approximately 350 public crime laboratories

INTRODUCTION
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The Crime Lab

• Result of
• Supreme court decisions in the 1960s
• Greater emphasis on scientifically evaluated
  evidence
• Drug specimens
• Accelerated drug abuse
• DNA profiling

INTRODUCTION
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Employment Outlook

• Increased reliance by police agencies on civilian
  personnel
• Highly-sophisticated scientific analysis of
  evidence
• DNA databank of convicted offenders (state
  national)
• Re-opening of old cases

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Crime Lab Organization
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Five Basic Services

• Physical science unit
• Chemistry
• Physics
• Geology
• Identify and compare physical evidence
• Biology unit
• Blood samples
• Body fluids
• Hair
• Fiber samples

INTRODUCTION
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Five Basic Services

• Firearms Unit
• Discharged bullets
• Cartridge cases
• Shotgun shells
• Ammunition
• Document unit
• Handwriting analysis
• Other questioned-document

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Technical Support

• Photographic Unit
• Specialized photographic techniques
• Record and examine physical evidence
• Optional services
• Toxicology
• Fingerprint analysis
• Voiceprint analysis
• Evidence collection
• Polygraph administration

INTRODUCTION
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Functions of the Forensic Scientist
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Job Activities analysis

• Biological and physical analysis of evidence
  gathered from a crime or accident scene
• Judicial generally accepted (Frye v. US)
• Trial judge as gatekeeper

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Job Activities testimony

• Court testimony
• Expert witness
• Evaluation of evidence
• Opinion offered
• No absolute certainty

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The Frye Standard

• Set guidelines for determining the admissibility
  of scientific evidence into the courtroom
• Must be generally accepted by the scientific
  community

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Daubert Criteria

• Technique/theory tested
• Peer reviewed
• Rate of error
• Standards for operation
• Widespread acceptance within scientific community

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Job Activities training

• Training in recognition, collection and
  preservation of evidence
• Agencies without 24/7 evidence techs
• Officers trained

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Special Forensic Science Services
INTRODUCTION
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Additional Specialization

• DNA analysis
• Human
• Non human
• Criminalistics
• Latent prints
• Pollen
• Arson
• Engineering sciences

• Physical anthropology
• Psychiatry
• Pathology
• Odontology
• Toxicology
• Entomology
• Geology
• Jurisprudence

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Figure 18  Typical blowfly life cycle from egg
deposition to adult fly emergence. This cycle is
representative of any one of the nearly ninety
species of blowflies in North America. Courtesy
E. P. Catts, Ph.D., deceased, and Neal H.
Haskell, Ph.D., forensic entomology consultant
www.forensic-entomology.com.
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Forensic Pathology

• Investigation of unnatural, unexplained, or
  violent deaths
• Medical examiners or coroners
• Determines cause of death
• Conducts autopsy

INTRODUCTION
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Stages Of Death

• Rigor mortis
• Shortening of muscle tissue
• Stiffening of body parts in the position at death
• First 24 hours to 36 hours post mortem

INTRODUCTION
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Stages Of Death

• Livor mortis
• Settling of blood in areas of the body closest to
  the ground
• Begins immediately on death and continues up to
  12 hours

INTRODUCTION
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Stages Of Death

• Algor mortis
• Loss of heat by a body
• Begins about an hour after death
• Loses heat by 1 to 1-1/2 degrees fahrenheit per
  hour until the body reaches the environmental
  temperature

INTRODUCTION
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Summary
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Questions

• 1. Ted Bundy was an American serial killer who
  was convicted on the basis of which type of
  forensic evidence?
• A. Bite marks C. DNA fingerprinting
• B. Latent fingerprints D. Ballistics

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Answer 1

• 1. Ted Bundy was an American serial killer who
  was convicted on the basis of which type of
  forensic evidence?
• A. Bite marks
• B. Latent fingerprints
• C. DNA fingerprinting
• D. Ballistics

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• 2. The time of death can be calculated by various
  means. One is rigor mortis, Latin for 'the
  stiffness of death'. Another indication is livor
  mortis or lividity. What does this term refer to?
  
• A. Cloudiness in the eyes
• B. Gravitational pooling of blood
• C. Degree of digestion of stomach contents
• D. Relaxation of muscles following to rigor
  mortis

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Answer 2

• 2. The time of death can be calculated by various
  means. One is rigor mortis, Latin for 'the
  stiffness of death'. Another indication is livor
  mortis or lividity. What does this term refer to?
  
• A. Cloudiness in the eyes
• B. Gravitational pooling of blood
• C. Degree of digestion of stomach contents
• D. Relaxation of muscles following to rigor
  mortis Livor is Latin for 'a black and blue spot'
  and refers to the discoloration of the skin in
  the lowest part of a body resulting from the
  gravitational pooling of blood.

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• 3. When attempting to identify a skeleton,
  craniofacial morphology (the structure and form
  of the skull and face) is the best indicator of
  race. One group of human beings has a unique,
  rounded jaw bone which is called a 'rocker jaw'.
  This is a characteristic of which ethnic group?
• A. Australian Aborigines C. African Americans
• B. Chinese D. Hawaiians

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Answer 3

• 3. When attempting to identify a skeleton,
  craniofacial morphology (the structure and form
  of the skull and face) is the best indicator of
  race. One group of human beings has a unique,
  rounded jaw bone which is called a 'rocker jaw'.
  This is a characteristic of which ethnic group?
• A. Australian Aborigines C. African Americans
• B. Chinese D. Hawaiians