Title: Phenomenological Analysis
1Phenomenological Analysis
- Schools of phenomenology have developed different
approaches to data analysis. -
- Three frequently used methods for descriptive
phenomenology are the methods of Colaizzi (1978),
Giorgi (1985), and Van Kaam (1966), all of whom
are from the Duquesne school of phenomenology,
based on Husserls philosophy.
2Phenomenological Analysis
- The basic outcome of all three methods is the
description of the meaning of an experience,
often through the identification of essential
themes. - Phenomenologists search for common patterns
shared by particular instances.
3Phenomenological Analysis
- There are, some important differences among these
three approaches. -
- Colaizzis method, for example, is the only one
that calls for a validation of results by
returning to study participants. - Giorgis analysis relies solely on researchers.
- His view is that it is inappropriate either to
return to participants to validate findings or to
use external judges to review the analysis. - Van Kaams method requires that intersubjective
agreement be reached with other expert judges.
4Example of a study using Colaizzis method
- Bondas and Eriksson (2001) studied the lived
experiences of pregnancy among Finnish women. - Eighty interviews with 40 women, together with
data from nonparticipant observations, were
analyzed according to Colaizzis method. - The researchers extracted significant statements
pertaining to the phenomena from transcriptions.
5Example of a study using Colaizzis method
- Meanings were formulated and organized into 10
themes, which were clustered into 3 comprehensive
categories and integrated into an exhaustive
description. -
- The three broad categories were the perfect body,
an altered mode of being, and striving for family
communion (The act or an instance of sharing, as
of thoughts or feelings).
6A second school of phenomenology is the Utrecht
School.
- Phenomenologists using this Dutch approach
combine characteristics of descriptive and
interpretive phenomenology. -
- Van Manens (1990) method is an example of this
combined approach in which researchers try to
grasp the essential meaning of the experience
being studied.
7- According to Van Manen, thematic aspects of
experience can be uncovered or isolated from
participants descriptions of the experience by
three methods - (1) the holistic approach
- (2) the selective or highlighting approach
- (3) the detailed or lineby- line approach.
8- In the holistic approach, researchers view the
text as a whole and try to capture its meanings. -
- In the selective approach, researchers highlight
or pull out statements or phrases that seem
essential to the experience under study. - In the detailed approach, researchers analyze
every sentence.
9- Once themes have been identified, they become the
objects of reflection and interpretation through
follow-up interviews with participants. - Through this process, essential themes are
discovered.
10- In addition to identifying themes from the
participants descriptions, Van Manen also calls
for gleaning (the collection of leftover crops
from farmers' fields after they have been
mechanically harvested or on fields where it is
not economically profitable to harvest. Often
gleaning is practiced by humanitarian groups
which distribute the gleaned food to the poor and
hungry) thematic descriptions from artistic
sources.
11- Van Manen urges qualitative researchers to keep
in mind that poetry, literature, music, painting,
and other art forms can provide a wealth of
experiences that can be used to increase insights
in the reflection process as the phenomenologist
tries to interpret and grasp the essential
meaning of the experience being studied. - These experiential descriptions in literature and
art help challenge and stretch the
phenomenologists interpretive sensibilities.
12Example of a study using Van Manens method
- Lauterbach (2001) used Van Manens method to
investigate mothers experiences with the death
of a wished-for baby. - Poetry, literature, mourning (state of sorrow
over the death or departure of a loved one) art,
and cemeteries (A place for burying the dead)
were especially helpful in Lauterbachs
interpretation of the mothers experiences.
13- For instance, Robert Frosts poem, Home Burial,
and John Miltons poem, On the Death of a Fair
Infant Dying of a Cough, were used in data
analysis. Also, a painting by Charles Wilson
Peale called Rachel Weeping, depicting a mother
mourning the loss of her infant from smallpox in
1772, and memorial art in cemeteries, provided
insight
14- A third school of phenomenology is an
interpretive approach called Heideggerian
hermeneutics. - Diekelmann, Allen, and Tanner (1989) have
described a seven-stage process of data analysis,
the outcome of which is a description of shared
practices and common meanings. -
15Example of a study using Van Manens method
- 1. All the interviews or texts are read for an
overall understanding. - 2. Interpretive summaries of each interview are
written. - 3. A team of researchers analyzes selected
transcribed interviews or texts. - 4. Any disagreements on interpretation are
resolved by going back to the text. - 5. Common meanings and shared practices are
identified by comparing and contrasting the text.
?????? ?????? ????. - 6. Relationships among themes emerge.
- 7. A draft of the themes along with exemplars
from texts are presented to the team. - Responses or suggestions are incorporated into
the final draft.
16- Example of a Heideggerian hermeneutical analysis
- Foley, Minick, and Kee (2000) explored the
experiences of military nurses as they engaged in
advocacy during a military operation, and
described their shared practices and common
meanings. - The hermeneutical analysis used the seven stages
described by Diekelmann and colleagues. - The stories of the 24 interviewed nurses revealed
one constitutive pattern safeguardingand four
related themes advocating as protecting,
advocating as attending the whole person,
advocating as being the patients voice, and
advocating as preserving personhood.
17- Pollio, Henley, and Thompson (1997) propose
- another method for conducting a hermeneutic
phenomenological study. - Their method begins with bracketing.
- Their bracketing is not, however, viewed as a
subtractive process of removing ones
presuppositions, but instead as a positive
process, a way of seeing. - Instead of suspending preconceived notions, as
described by Husserl, Pollio, and colleagues call
for researchers to apply a world view. ??? ?? ???
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????? ?????????? ???? ? ???? ???? ?? ??? ?????
??????? ? ????? ??????.???? ?? ????? ???????
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???????? ?????? ???? ??? ??????.
18- Pollio and colleagues method begins with a
bracketing interview. - The researcher is the first person to be
interviewed about the topic under study, which
raises his or her awareness of presuppositions (a
supposition made prior to having knowledge). - Once interviews have been conducted and
transcribed, the hermeneutic circle begins. - This is an interpretive process of continuously
relating a part of the text (the transcribed
interview) to the whole of the text. - Pollio and colleagues described three types of
interpretation group, idiographic (particular),
and nomothetic (general).
19- In group interpretation, a transcript is read
aloud. - Meanings and relationships among meanings are
discussed. - After one transcript is interpreted, the
remaining transcripts are usually interpreted by
the primary researcher. - At certain times the researcher goes back to the
group with idiographic descriptions and
nomothetic themes. - The group provides feedback on whether the
descriptions and themes are supported by the
data. - Each transcript is interpreted in the context of
all - other interview transcripts.
20- Figure 23-4 provides aschematic summary of Pollio
and colleagues intervie process (p. 587) in the
nursing research book
21F I G U R E 2 3 . 4 Schematic summary of Pollio
and colleagues interview Choose topic Self as
focus Participant as focus Research community as
focus Text as focus (Hermeneutic
analysis part-to-whole dialectic) All (most)
analyses are done within context of research
group Perform bracketing interview Interview
participants Transcribe interviews Read for
meaning units Cluster initial thematic
meaning Develop thematic structure Present
structure to research group Report findings to
participants Prepare final report Read for sense
of whole
22- Example using Pollio and colleagues method
- Secrest (2000) investigated the quality of life
of primary support persons of stroke survivors. - Before data collection, the researchers
bracketing (A series or group of brackets
brackets, collectively) interview occurred. - Once it was transcribed, the bracketing interview
was analyzed by the research group. - In-depth interviews were next conducted with 10
participants.
23- Selected transcripts from the 10 interviews were
read aloud to members of the research group and
were analyzed, comparing the part of a transcript
with its whole, and the whole transcript with
other transcripts. - Through this interpretive process, three theme
emerged fragility (quality of being easily
damaged or destroyed), vigilance (the process of
paying close and continuous attention
"wakefulness, watchfulness) , and
loss/responsibility.
24Example of a PhenomenologicalAnalysis
- Beck (1998) conducted a descriptive
phenomenological study of the experience of panic
disorder in new mothers. - The purposive sample consisted of six women who
had experienced their initial onset of panic
disorder in the postpartum period. - Each mother participated in an in-depth interview
in which she described her experiences living
with panic after delivery. All interviews, which
lasted from 50 minutes to 2 hours, were
audiotaped and transcribed
25- Colaizzis (1978) method was used to analyze
verbatim transcripts. - After reading the transcripts, Beck extracted
significant statements, formulated their
meanings, and categorized statements into theme
clusters. - The findings were then integrated into an
exhaustive (performed comprehensively and
completely) description of the phenomenon of
postpartum panic and validated by two mothers who
had participated in the study.
26- During the early stage of data analysis, Beck
initially identified eight themes. - After further deliberation (planning something
carefully and intentionally) she combined two
preliminary themes with other themes. - Beck concluded that the following six themes
described the essence of the experience of
postpartum panic
27- 1. The terrifying physical and emotional
componeof panic paralyzed women, leaving them
feeling totally out of control. - 2. During panic attacks, womens cognitive
functioning abruptly diminished between attacks,
women experienced a more insidious decrease in
cognitive functioning. - 3. During the attacks, women feverishly struggled
to maintain their composure (A calm or tranquil
state of mind), leading to exhaustion. - 4. Because of the terrifying nature of panic,
preventing further attacks was paramount in the
lives of the women.
28- 5. As a result of recurring panic attacks,
negative changes in womens lifestyles ensued (To
take place subsequently), lowering their
self-esteem and leaving them to bear the burden
of disappointing both themselves and their
families. - 6. Mothers were haunted (having or showing
excessive or compulsive concern with something)
by the prospect (the possibility of future
success) that their panic could have residual
effects on themselves and their families. - As depicted in these six themes, panic permeated
(pass through) all aspects of a mothers life as
she struggled to fulfill her maternal role.
29- Analysis of Focus Group Data
- Focus group interviews yield rich and complex
data that pose special analytic challenges. - Indeed, there is little consensus about the
analysis of focusgroup data, despite its use by
researchers in several qualitative research
traditions.
30- Unlike data from individual interviews, focus
group interviews are very difficult to
transcribe, partly because there are often
technical problems. For example, it is difficult
to place microphones so that the voices of all
group members are picked up with equal clarity,
particularly because participants tend to speak
at different volumes. - An additional issue is that, because of the group
situation, it is inevitable that several
participants will speak at once, making it
impossible for transcriptionists to discern
everything being said.
31- A major controversy in the analysis of focus
group data is whether the unit of analysis is the
group or individual participants. - Some writers (e.g., Morrison-Beedy,
Côté-Arsenault, and Feinstein, 2001) maintain
that the group is the proper unit of analysis. - Analysis of group-level data involves a scrutiny
(A close, careful examination or study) of
themes, interactions, and sequences within and
between groups. - Others, however (e.g., Carey and Smith, 1994
Kidd and Parshall, 2000), argue that analysis
should occur at both the group level and the
individual level.
32- Those who insist that only group-level analysis
is appropriate argue that what individuals say in
focus groups cannot be treated as personal
disclosures because they are inevitably
influenced by the dynamics of the group. - However, even in personal interviews individual
responses are shaped by social processes, and
analysis of individual-level data (independent of
group) is thought by some analysts to add
important insights. - Carey and Smith (1994) advocate a third level of
analysisnamely, the analysis of individual
responses in relation to group context (e.g., is
a participants view in accord with or in
contrast to majority opinion, and how does that
get expressedor suppressed?).
33- For those who wish to analyze data from
individual participants, it is essential to
maintain information about what each person
saida task that is impossible to do if
researchers are relying solely on audiotapes.
Videotapes, as supplements to audiotapes, are
sometimes used to identify who said what in focus
group sessions. More frequently, however,
researchers have several members of the research
team in attendance at the sessions, whose job it
is to take detailed field notes about the order
of speakers and about significant nonverbal
behavior, such as pounding (A heavy blow) or
clenching of fists, crying, aggressive body
language, and so on.
34- Many focus group researchers agree, regardless of
their position on the unit of analysis, on the
benefit of certain methods of enhancing data
quality and analytic rigor (Strictness or
severity, as in temperament, action, or
judgment). - First, it is usually recommended that member
checking occur in situ (in the original or
natural place or site) . That is, moderators
develop a summary of major themes or viewpoints
in real time, and present that summary to focus
group participants at the end of the session for
their feedback.
35- Especially rich data often emerge from
participants reactions to those summaries. - Second, postsession debriefings are critical.
- Team members who were present during the session
meet immediately afterward to discuss issues and
themes that arose.
36- During these debriefings, which should be tape
recorded, team members also share their views
about group dynamics, such as coercive (having
great power or force or potency or effect) group
members, censoring (To examine ) of controversial
opinions, individual conformity to group
viewpoints, and discrepancies between verbal and
nonverbal behavior.
37- Transcription quality is especially important in
focus group interviews Emotional content as well
as words must be faithfully recorded because
participants are responding not only to the
questions being posed (To assume or hold a
particular position or posture) but also to the
experience of being in a group. - Field notes, debriefing notes (report of a
mission or task), and verbatim transcripts
ideally must be integrated to yield a more
comprehensive transcript for analysis.
38- Example of integrating focus group data
- Morrison-Beedy and her co-authors (2001) provided
several examples of integrating data across
sources from their own focus group research. - For example, one verbatim quote was, It was no
big deal. This was supplemented with data from
the field notes that the womans eyes were cast
downward as she said this, and that the words
were delivered sarcastically (ironic ).
39- The complete transcript for this entry, which
includes researcher interpretation in brackets,
was as follows - It was no big deal. (said sarcastically, with
eyes looking downward). It really was a very big
deal to her, but others had not acknowledged
that.
40- Because of group dynamics, focus group analysts
must be sensitive to both the thematic content of
these interviews, and also to how, when, and why
themes are developed. - Some of the issues that could be central to focus
group analysis are the following
41- Does an issue raised in a focus group constitute
a theme or merely a strongly held viewpoint of
one or two members? - Do the same issues or themes arise in more than
one group? - If there are group differences, why might this be
the casewere participants different in
background characteristics and experiences, or
did group processes affect the discussions?
42- Are some issues sufficiently salient (having a
quality that thrusts itself into attention) that
they are discussed not only in direct response to
specific questions posed by the moderator, but
also spontaneously emerge at multiple points in
the session? - Do group members find certain issues both
interesting and important?
43- Some focus group analysts, such as Kidd and
Parshall (2000), use quantitative methods as
adjuncts (Added or connected in a subordinate or
auxiliary capacity) to their qualitative
analysis. - Using NUDIST they conduct such analyses as
assessing similarities and differences between
groups, determining coding frequencies to aid
pattern detection, examining codes in relation to
participant characteristics, and examining how
much individual members contributed.
44- They use such methods not so that interpretation
can be based on frequencies, but so that they can
better understand context and identify issues
that require further critical scrutiny and
interpretation. - Focus group data are sometimes analyzed according
to the procedures of a formal research tradition,
such as grounded theory.