?st????? ??ad??

1
?st????? ??ad??µ?

• ???a??t?ta

?p?????st??? ??ast????t?ta ??t??s? µe ta
d??t??a ?aß??????? ????tade?ad??? s?st?µa
a???µ?s?? ??eta??? ??de?ad??? ???t????e? F????
???ad??? s?st?µa !!! ???t? ?p?????st??? µ??a??
?ßa?a? (2000 p.?.)
2
?st????? ??ad??µ?

• ??a?????s?

1600 µ.?. John Napier ? ???a???µ???? ?a???e?
sin(A) cos(B) (1/2)sin(AB)
(1/2)sin(A-B) ?p?µ????, ??a t?? p???ap?as?asµ?
0.17365 0.99027, a?a??t??µe se p??a?e? ?a?
ß??s???µe ?t? 0.17365 sin(10), 0.99027
cos(8) S??ep?? sin(10) cos(8) (1/2)
(sin(18) sin(2) ) ?p? p??a?e? sin(18)
0.30902, sin(2) 0.03490 ?at? s???pe?a
0.17365 0.99027 0.17196 1642 Blaise Pascal
? ?p?????st??? µ??a?? µe ???s? ?d??t?t?? t?????
(p??s?es? afa??es?) http//www-jime.open.ac.uk/9
8/7/pascal.htmlapplet t??? 17?? a???a Leibnitz
(ße?t??s? p???ap?as?asµ?? ?a? d?a??es?)
3
?st????? ??ad??µ?
?p?????st??? ???a?? t?? Pascal
4
?st????? ??ad??µ?

• 19?? a???a?

1801 Joseph Jacquard ? p????aµµat???µe???
a??a?e??? 1833 Charles Babbage ? a?a??t???
µ??a?? (e?t??es? a???µ?t???? p???e?? ?a?
d??at?t?ta p????aµµat?sµ??. ??st???? de?
?atas?e??st??e.)
5
?st????? ??ad??µ?
??a??t??? ???a?? t?? Babbage (µ??t???)
6
?st????? ??ad??µ?

• 19?? a???a?

1880 ? a????s? st???e??? t?? ap???af?? d????ese
8 ?????a. ? ?µe???a???? ??µ???af??? ?p??es?a
a???ese st?? Hollerith ?a a?apt??e? µ???d? ??a
ep?t????s? t?? epe?e??as?a? 1890 ? a????s? t??
st???e??? d????ese t??a ?????a 1890 O Hellerith
p??e st?? Computing and Tabulating 1911
S?????e?s? µe t?e?? ???e? eta??e?e? To 1924
µet???µ?st??e se International Business Machines
(IBM) ap?
7
?st????? ??ad??µ?

• ???t?? ?e?te??? ?a???sµ??? ???eµ??

St?? 1? ?a??. ???eµ? ?atas?e??st??a? a???µ?t????
µ??a??? µe ta??t?ta 6 ?? 10 sec ??a
p???ap?as?asµ? d?? de?a??f??? a???µ?? ?e?aet?a
1930 ????p???s? ?e?? ??a ???p???s? ???eß?a?
Boole (?ata????t??? st???e?a - µ??µe?) 1937-1944
?a?ep?st?µ?? Harvard ?a? ???? Automatic
Sequence-Controlled Calculator (ASCC) a???te?a
MARK-I ??RK-I ????? 5 t????, 0.3 sec ??a
p??s?es? d?? 23-??f??? a???µ??, 6 secs ??a
p???ap?as?asµ?
8
?st????? ??ad??µ?

• ???t?? ?e?te??? ?a???sµ??? ???eµ??

???? de?aet?a? 30 John Atanasoff, Iowa State
College ? ???t?? ??e?t??????? ?p?????st?? e?d????
s??p?? (ABC). ???t?? ?p?????st?? p??
???s?µ?p????se t? d?ad??? s?st?µa a???µ?s??
(???a??s? t? 1973 !!!)
9
?st????? ??ad??µ?

• ?e?te??? ?a???sµ??? ???eµ??

?at? t? d????e?a t?? p???µ?? a?apt?????a? ap? t??
??eta???? ??t??atas??pe?a ??e?t???????
?p?????st?? (Colossi) ??a ap???d???p???s?
µ???µ?t??
10
?st????? ??ad??µ?

• ????C

1943 1946 University of Pennsylvania (Mauchly
?a? Eckert) Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Calculator ???t?? ??e?t??????? ?p?????st??
?e????? s??p?? ???s? ??e?t??????? ??????? 5000
p??s??se?? ? 30 p???ap?as?asµ??? /
de?te???ept? ???µ? d??at?t?ta ap????e?s?? 20
de?a??f???
11
?st????? ??ad??µ?

• ????C (..s????e?a)

?p?f??e?a 15 ?????de? tet?a?????? p?d?a ?????
30 t???? 18000 ?????e?, 70000 a?t?st?se??, 10000
p????t?? 150 kW ?s???
12
?st????? ??ad??µ?

• ?p?????st?? p??t?? ?e????

John von Neumann ? ?????a t?? ap????e?µ????
p?????µµat?? (stored program concept) 1949
p??t?? ?p?????st?? Von Neumann, Cambridge, UK,
EDSAC, ep?ß?e?? Maurice Wilkes ?? Mauchly
Eckert t?? ENIAC ?d??sa? t?? UNIVAC UNIVAC-I
p??t?? ?/? µa????? pa?a????? (1951)
13
?st????? ??ad??µ?

• Transistor
• ?at? ???sµ?????, t? transistor e??a? ?
  s?µa?t???te?? a?a?????? t?? 20?? a???a
• 1947 Brattain, Schockley, Bardeen

14
?st????? ??ad??µ?
Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect
Transistor (MOSFET)
15
Silicon Wafer
Si
16
Oxidation
Si
17
Photosensitive film
Si
18
Mask
Si
19
Ultraviolet light
Si
20
Chemical Etching
Si
21
Removal
SiO2
22
Ion Implantation
Si
SiO2
23
n regions
Si
SiO2
24
Terminals
Si
SiO2
25
Operation
Si
SiO2
VDD
VDD
GND
26
?st????? ??ad??µ?

• ?p?????st?? de?te??? ?e????

??t??at?stas? t?? ??????? ap? transistor. ?a????
pa?a???? ?/? ap? IBM ?a? ???e? eta??e?e?.
G??????te?? ta??t?ta epe?e??as?a? ?? ??st??
pa??µe?e ????? ? 7090 t?? ??? 3 million ?
?a???a? !!!
27
?st????? ??ad??µ?

• ?p?????st?? t??t?? ?e????

???s? µ?????????? ????????µ???? ?????µ?t?? (SSI,
MSI), µ??µ? µa???t???? da?t?????, ?s????te?e?
s?s?e??? e?s?d??/e??d?? ??? se??? 360 (1964),
DEC ?e??s? t?µ?? ?p?????st?? ta?t?????? a???s?
??a??t?t?? ?????a s?µßat?t?ta? ???at?t?ta
s??des?? µe ?/? µ?s? t??ef?????? ??aµµ??
28
?st????? ??ad??µ?

• ?p?????st?? t?ta?t?? ?e????

??sa de?aet?a? 70 ??? µ?sa de?aet?a? 80 Large
Scale of Integration ???µe? ?µ?a????? ?a?a?t???st?
?? ????epe?e??ast??, d??t?a ?p?????st??,
µ????epe?e??ast??

• ?p?????st?? p?µpt?? ?e????

Very Large Scale of Integration
(VLSI) ??at?µµ???a transistor se µ?a ??f?da
p???t???
29
??????s? S?st?µ?t??
30
?st???a ????sµ????

• ???t?? ?????aµµat?st?? st?? ?st???a..
• ??a ???a??a Ada Augusta
• ???a?e t? p??t? p????aµµa (?p?????sµ?? t??
  a???µ?? Bernoulli) ??a t?? a?a??t??? µ??a?? t??
  Babbage

31
?st???a ????sµ????

• ???t? ?e???

G??ssa ???a??? (machine language) ?ed?µ??a ?a?
e?t???? p?? e?µ??e???ta? ?µesa ap? t? ????? t??
?p?????st? ?.?. ? e?t??? 000101000000000000000000
01100100 ap????e?e? ta pe??e??µe?a t?? ????? 100
t?? µ??µ?? se ??a? ?ata????t?
32
?st???a ????sµ????

• ???t? ?e??? (..ße?t??s?)

S?µß?????? G??sse? ?????aµµat?sµ?? (symbolic
assembly languages) (???sse? p????aµµat?sµ??
?aµ???? ep?p?d??) ???µ????? ???µata ??a
e?t???? ?.?. ? e?t??? 000101000000000000000000011
00101 ???feta? ?? LDA 101 S?µß???µetaf?ast??
(assembler) t? p????aµµa p?? µetat??pe? t??
assembly se ???ssa µ??a???
33
?st???a ????sµ????

• ???t? ?e??? (..µe???e?t?µata)

??s????a a??pt???? e??? p?????µµat?? ??????
e???t?s? ap? t? µ??a?? G?a t? s??p? a?t?
a?apt?????a? ?? d?e?µ??e?t?? (interpreter) p??
e??a? se ??s? ?a d?aß?s??? µ?a e?t??? t?? t?p?? C
A B ?a? ?a t?? e?µ??e?s??? a?????a µe t??
?p?????st? To p????aµµa e?µ??e?eta? ap? t??
interpreter ???e f??? p?? p???e?ta? ?a e?te?este?
-gt ?????ß???
34
?st???a ????sµ????

• ?e?te?? ?e???

• G??sse? p????aµµat?sµ?? ?????? ep?p?d??
• 1957 FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslator system)
  (ep?st?µ?????? efa?µ????)
• 1958 ALGOL (a??????µ??, a???a??t?ta ?e???sµ?? µ?
  a???µ?t???? ded?µ????)
• 1960 COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language)
  (eµp?????? efa?µ????, ?e???sµ?? a??e???)
• St?? ???sse? a?t?? ???s?µ?p?????ta?
  µeta???tt?st?? (compilers) µetat??p? ???ssa?
  ?????? ep?p?d?? se ???ssa µ??a???

35
??t??es? e??? p?????µµat??
??t??es? p?????µµat?? µa?? µe ded?µ??a
36
?st???a ????sµ????

• ???t? ?e???

• ??sa???? t?? ?????a? t?? ?e?t???????? s?st?µat??
• 1965 PL/1 t?? IBM (multi-programming)
• 1965 BASIC (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic
  Instruction Code) (Dartmouth College, USA)
• 1971 Pascal (??????, Niklaus Wirth)
• ? ?d??? st? s????e?a ???p???se t?? MODULA-2
• To 1972 ?p???a? 172 ???sse? p????aµµat?sµ?? !!

37
?st???a ????sµ????

• ??ta?t? ?e???

• ????? 1970 ???s? ????sµ????
• O? ap?t??esµa p??????e ? ???ssa Ada (Ada83)
• E??p??s? t?? ?e?t???????? s?st?µat?? UNIX
• ?p? t? UNIX p??????e ? ???ssa C
• Se ??e? t?? p??????µe?e? ???sse? ????a??? ?????a
  e??a? ? s????t?s? (d?ad??as?a) d?ad??as?a???
  ???sse?
• ? Smalltalk e?s??a?e t?? ?????a t??
  a?t??e?µe??st?af?? ???ss?? p????aµµat?sµ??

38
?st???a ????sµ????

• ??µpt? ?e???

• ?p????t?s? t?? a?t??e?µe??st?af?? µe??d??
• ?µf???s? t?? C, Java
• LINUX

39
FABRICATION STAGES FOR Intel Pentium Processors
40
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486 ?p?. 1989 25 - 100 ??z 1.2? Trans. 4 GB
51
Pentium MMX March 1993 60-233 ??z 3.1? trans 4
GB
52
Pentium Pro March 1995 150-200 ?Hz 5.5? trans 4
GB
53
Pentium II May 1997 233-400 MHz 7.5 M trans 4 GB
54
??????s? ?p?????st??
??sa????

• ?e?t???????? µ???de? e??? ?p?????st?
• ?e?t???? ????da ?pe?e??as?a? ??? CPU
• ????a ? ???te???sa ???µ?
• ?????t??? ? de?te?e???sa ? e??te???? µ??µ?
• S?s?e??? ? µ???de? ??s?d??/???d??
• ??a ta a??t??? ?????µata ???p?????ta? µe
  ????????µ??a ?????µata (ICs)

55
??????s? ?p?????st??
?e?a???a ?? ?e?t???????? µ???de? ap?te????ta?
ap? ap???ste?a ?????µata, ?p?? - ?ata????t??
(registers) - µet??t?? (counters) -
ap???d???p???t?? (decoders) p?? µe t? se??? t???
ap?te????ta? ap? ßas??? ??f?a?? ?????µata,
?p?? - p??e? - d?sta?e?? p???d???t??
(flip-flops) - ap?µ???t?? (latches) ta ?p??a
???p?????ta? ap? ??a µ??? s?stat??? st???e?? -
MOSFET t?a???st??
56
??????s? ?p?????st??
?a?µ?? ? ???µa?a ????????s?? ??a?t?ta? ap? t??
a???µ? t?? ßas???? ?????µ?t?? a?? ??f?da
p???t??? ????????s? ?????? ???µa?a? (SSI) 1-10
ßas??? ?????µata ????????s? ??s?? ???µa?a? (MSI)
10-100 ????????s? ?e????? ???µa?a? (LSI) 100-
de??de? ?????de? ?????. ???? ?e????? ???µa?a?
(VLSI) 50000 (ULSI) ?
57
????a ???µ? (Main Memory)
???s? ?p????e?s? p????aµµ?t?? (a???????e?
e?t????) ?p????e?s? ???sµ???? ap? ta
ded?µ??a ?pe?d? ? ????a µ??µ? ??e? pepe?asµ???
????t???t?ta ?a? e??a? s?et??? a???ß?,
???s?µ?p??e?ta? ??a ?a ap????e?e? t?? t?????se?
p????f???e? ?? p????f???e? p?? de? ??e?????ta?
?µesa ap????e???ta? st?? ß????t??? µ??µ?, p??
??e? s?ed?? ape?????st? ????t???t?ta.. ??e? ?µ??
p??? µe?a??te?? ????? p??sp??as??
58
????a ???µ? (Main Memory)
??????s? ???µ?? ? ????a µ??µ? ap?te?e?ta? ap? ??a
s??e??µe?? a???µ? ??se??, ???e µ?a ap? t?? ?p??e?
pe????e? t? ?d?? p????? d?ad???? ??f??? (d?f??? ?
bits) Se ???e ??s? a?t?st???e? µ?a d?e????s?
(address) µ?s? t?? ?p??a? p?a?µat?p??e?ta? ?
a?af??? st? pe??e??µe?? t?? ??s?? ? ???e ??s?
e??a? ??a?? ?a ap????e?se? µ?a d?f??s???aß?, ?
??a byte (8 d?ad??? ??f?a)
59
?e?t???? ????da ?pe?e??as?a?
?e?t?????a ??a?a?e? a?t?µata e?t???? ap? t? µ??µ?
?a? t?? e?te?e? a???????a?? ? ??? pe????e? ??a?
a???µ? ?ata????t?? ???e ?ata????t?? ap????e?e?
µ?a a???????a d?f??s???aß?? (bytes) ???sµ????
µ????? p?? ???µ??eta? ???? (word) ??a s?st?µa µe
????a µ??µ? ?a? ???, e??a? ? ap???ste?? µ??f?
?p?????st???? s?st?µat?? (e?a????µ???? t??
????sµ????) ?p?????st?? ?pe?e??ast?? ????a
???µ?
60
????a ???µ? (Main Memory)
?st? ?t? se ??a? ?p?????st? µe µ???? ????? 32 bit
( 4 byte), ?????µe ?a ap????e?s??µe ta
pe??e??µe?a e??? ?ata????t? (JC00) st? µ??µ?,
st?? ??se?? 0 - 3
?e??e??µe?? ??e????s?
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
J C 0 0
Big endian ??????s? ("µe????? ?????) ? ap????e?s?
?e???? ap? t? s?µa?t???te?? (a??ste??te??) byte
t?? ?????
?pe?e??ast?? Motorola ?p?????st?? Apple
Macintosh, Atari, Amiga, workstations Sun, HP
61
????a ???µ? (Main Memory)
?st? ?t? se ??a? ?p?????st? µe µ???? ????? 32 bit
( 4 byte), ?????µe ?a ap????e?s??µe ta
pe??e??µe?a e??? ?ata????t? (JC00) st? µ??µ?,
st?? ??se?? 0 - 3
?e??e??µe?? ??e????s?
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0 0 C J
Little endian ??????s? ("µ????? ?????) ?
ap????e?s? ?e???? ap? t? ????te?? s?µa?t???
(de???te??) byte t?? ?????
?pe?e??ast?? Intel ?p?????st?? IBM ?a? s?µßat??
?? ???? big ?a? small endian p???????ta? ap? ta
"?a??d?a t?? Gulliver" ?p?? sat??????ta? ??
p???t???? p?? d?af????? a? p??pe? ta a??? ?a
sp????ta? ap? t? µe???? ? µ???? ???? t???
62
??????s? ?/?
S?s?e??? ??s?d?? ??sa???? p????f????? ap? t?
e??te???? pe??ß????? S?s?e??? ???d?? ?et?d?s?
p????f????? ap? t?? ?p?????st? p??? t? e??te????
pe??ß????? S?s?e??? ?????t???? ?p????e?s??
??s???
63
????? ????sµ???
?p??ad?p?te d?e??as?a e??a? d??at?? ?a e?te?este?
e?te se ????? e?te se ????sµ??? ?.?. ?
p???ap?as?asµ?? e??a? d??at?? ?a e?te?este? µ???
µe t? ???s? e??? a????st? ?a? ?ata????t?? (?.?.
???/sµ?? d?? a???µ?? 16 bit se 16 ???????) ???a?
?µ?? d??at?? ?a ???s?µ?p????e? ?????µa e?d????
s??p?? p?? e?te?e? t?? p??/sµ? se ??a? ?????
µ??a??? ? ap?fas? ??a a???es? ?e?t??????? se
????? ????sµ??? e??a? ??µa ??st???, ta??t?ta?,
e?e????a? ?? ap?f?se?? a?t?? ?a???????? t??
d?af??et???? a???te?t?????? s?st?µ?t??