Reaction, Revolution, and Romanticism, 1815-1850

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Chapter 21 Reaction, Revolution, and Romanticism,
1815-1850
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Europe After the Congress of Vienna 1. The
Treaty of Paris in 1814 resulted in a lenient
peace for France. The monarchy was restored when
Louis XVIII (1814-1824) ascended the throne.
France was permitted to retain some of the
territories in western Germany and parts of the
Austrian Netherlands that it had captured by
1792. 2. Although Poland was reconstituted out
of the Duchy of Warsaw, Prussia and Austria were
permitted to keep some Polish territory (see
Acetate 57, Map 18.2). Thus, the new Polish
kingdom was only three-quarters the size of the
previous Duchy of Warsaw. The crown was to be
worn by the Russian tsar who would govern foreign
policy. To compensate Prussia for the loss of
some of its Polish lands, two-fifths of Saxony
and the kingdom of Westphalia were conceded as
well as the left bank of the Rhine. 3. The
Austrian Netherlands was handed over to Holland
to create a united Netherlands. In return,
Austria received the northern Italian provinces
of Lombardy and Venetia. These would give
Austria interests in the course of Italian
affairs. The marriage in the Netherlands,
however, was not a good one since the two areas
differed in culture, language, and religion.
Likewise, there would be future resentment in
Italy over Austrian interference. 4. In Italy,
the Kingdom of Piedmont and Sardinia was extended
to the border with Switzerland. 5. Switzerland
became a perpetually neutral state. 6. The
Confederation of the Rhine created by Napoleon
was replaced by the German Confederation. It was
composed of thirty-nine independent German states
including parts of Prussia and the Austrian
Empire. The presence of both states would lead
to future conflicts over control of the
confederation. 7. Effectively, a belt had been
placed around France to contain it from any
future aggression the Netherlands in the north
and the German Confederation, Switzerland, and
Piedmont in the east. Moreover, Prussia had
received considerable territory on France's
eastern frontier to deter any French aggression
from that quarter. Questions 1. How was Europe
reorganized after the Napoleonic Wars? 2. What
was the rationale behind the restructuring of
Europe at the Congress of Vienna? 3. What were
the potential problems created by the "new
Europe" constructed at the Congress of Vienna?

• Europe after the Congress of Vienna

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• The Conservative Order, 1815-1830
• The Peace Settlement, Vienna
• Restoration of Louis XVIII of France
• Viscount Castlereagh of Britain, Prince
  Talleyrand of France, Prince Klemens von
  Metternich of Austria
• Principle of Legitimacy
• Balance of political and military power
• Poland
• Containment of France

4

• The Ideology of Conservatism
• Edmund Burke (1729-1797), Reflections on the
  Revolution in France
• Society is a contract
• Joseph de Maistre (1753-1821)
• Monarchy divinely sanctioned, guarantees order
• Conservative Domination The Concert of Europe
• Four congresses, 1818-1822
• Outbreak of revolution in Spain and Italy
• Intervention

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Latin America in the First Half of the Nineteenth
Century 1. When Napoleon deposed the Spanish
king in 1808, placing his brother Joseph on the
throne, some colonial leaders cited ancient
Spanish law to declare that the removal justified
the shift of sovereignty back to the people.
Increasingly, authority was seized to hold in
trust until the true king, Ferdinand VII, could
be restored to power. Radicals, however,
regarded the conditions as an opportunity to
throw off the authority of Spain. Under the
leadership of Simón Bolivar in the north, the
territories of Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, and
Bolivia were freed from Spanish control between
1810 and 1824. In the south, José de San Martin,
operating from already independent Argentina,
freed Chile in 1818. Under Bolivar, Gran
Columbia (Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador) was
created for the purpose of establishing a single
powerful state in South America. It did not work
and by 1830 both Venezuela and Ecuador had fallen
away. 2. With the French approaching Lisbon, the
British spirited away King João VI in 1808 to the
Portuguese colony of Brazil. When João was
summoned back to Portugal after the war, he left
behind his son Pedro who took the lead as the
sentiment for independence developed. When
Brazil declared independence in 1822, Pedro I
(1822-1831) was crowned emperor. As discontent
over his rule increased, Pedro was deposed in
1831. He was replaced by his five year old son
Pedro II who would rule Brazil after a series of
regencies until overthrown in 1889. 3. Radicals
seized the opportunity for independence in Buenos
Aires in 1810 and by 1816 the city and the
outlying provinces had formed the United
Provinces of the River Plate, the basis for the
Argentine state. After a struggle with Brazil
over adjoining territory in the northeast, the
state of Uruguay was created in 1828 as a
buffer. 4. Mexico became independent in 1821
following a conservative rebellion that was
driven by fears of the consequences of a liberal
revolution occurring in Spain. Like Brazil,
Mexico established a monarchy in 1822 but it
collapsed in 1823. Brought into the newly
independent Mexico was central America. They
separated themselves in 1823 as the United
Provinces of Central America. The United
Provinces disintegrated in 1838 into five
separate states. 5. In 1791 during the French
Revolution the slaves in Haiti rebelled against
their masters. Napoleon sent troops in 1799 to
restore colonial order but weakened by disease,
the French army was defeated. On January 1,
1804, the colony was proclaimed independent. Off
and on, the Haitians controlled the whole island
until 1844 when the Dominican Republic won its
independence. 6. In 1823 President James Monroe
warned the Europeans against any attempts to
regain their former colonies in the Americas.
Question 1. Why would it be important that
Latin America remain independent?

• Latin America in the First Half of the Nineteenth
  Century

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• Revolt in Latin America
• Simón Bolivar (1783-1830)
• José de San Martín (1778-1850)
• Monroe Doctrine, 1823
• The Greek Revolt (1821-1832)
• Treaty of Adrianople, 1829
• Conservative Domination The European States
• Great Britain Rule of the Tories
• Peterloo Massacre, 1819
• Minor reforms
• Restoration of France
• Moderation of Louis XVIII, 1814-1824
• Charles X, 1824-1830

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• Intervention in the Italian States and Spain
• Repression in Central Europe
• 38 sovereign states
• Liberal and national movements in the German
  states
• Burschenschaften movement, student societies,
  1817-1819
• Austrian stagnation
• Russia Autocracy of the Tsars
• Alexander I, 1801-1825
• Speransky reforms
• Decemberist Revolt, 1825
• Nicholas I, 1825-1855

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The Distribution of Languages in
Nineteenth-Century Europe 1. One of the
consequences of the wars of Napoleon was the
engendering of a nationalistic spirit in most of
the territories touched by the French. 2. There
are a number of factors in nationalism
institutions, traditions, customs, and language.
Of these, language served as perhaps the most
important element since it is the tool through
which the other elements are communicated. This
linguistic map illustrates the spread of
population and culture. It also demonstrates how
the languages of Europe are interconnected. The
map clearly indicates that the Latin root
language groups correspond closely to the Western
Roman Empire. Laying outside this empire were
the Germanic tribes, little affected by the Latin
language but influenced by the Roman institutions
as they overran the northern regions of the
empire. The Slavic root languages relate to the
successful migration of those people south and
west and their borrowing of the cultures they
encountered. 3. Nationalists of the nineteenth
century Europe began asserting that it was
possible to identify distinct nations based on
shared characteristics, especially language.
4. Nationalists advocated the union of all
those people with the shared national
characteristics into self-governing nation-states
independent from foreign rule. Questions 1.
What were the objectives of European
nationalists? 2. How can language serve as a
means to generate and unify a nationalistic
spirit?

• The Distribution of Languages in
  Nineteenth-Century Europe

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• Ideologies of Change
• Liberalism
• Economic liberalism (classical economics)
• Thomas Malthus (1766-1834), Essay on the
  Principles of Population
• Population growth
• David Ricardo (1772-1823), Principles of
  Political Economy
• Wages
• John Stuart Mill, On Liberty, On the Subjection
  of Women
• Liberty of the individual
• Womens rights

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• Nationalism
• Part of a community with common institutions,
  traditions, language, and customs
• Allied with liberalism
• Early Socialism
• Henri de Saint-Simon (1760-1825)
• Organize society in cooperative community
• Charles Fourier (1772-1838)
• Model communities, phalansteries
• Robert Owen (1771-1858)
• New Lanark, Scotland
• Louis Blanc (1813-1882)
• Social problems require government Assistance

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European Revolts in the 1820s and 1830s 1.
Liberal revolts in Spain and Italy in 1820
prompted a meeting of the Concert of Europe at
Troppau in October. Under the guidance of Prince
Metternich and Tsar Alexander I (1801-1825) the
right was established to intervene in nations in
order to restore legitimate (monarchical)
governments when faced with an internal (liberal)
revolt. Although Britain did not agree, Austria
in 1821 was authorized to send troops into
Naples. The revolts here and in Sardinia were
crushed. In 1823 France was sent into Spain to
put down a liberal rebellion. Again order was
restored. 2. The crumbling Ottoman Empire
experienced in 1821 revolts in Moldavia,
Wallachia, and Greece. Such events gave rise to
fears that Russia would take advantage of the
situation to move on the Balkans, especially
Greece. Complicating the situation was Austria's
own desire for land in the Balkans and the
British and French interests in trading
opportunities and the possibilities of
establishing naval bases in the area. The Greek
revolt against Turkish rule in 1821 generated
much sympathy in Europe and in 1827 a combined
British and French naval force defeated a large
Turkish fleet. The following year Russia
declared war on the Turks and invaded Moldavia
and Wallachia (Romania). In 1829 The Treaty of
Adrianople ended the Russo-Turkish War and gave
Russia a protectorate over the provinces while
allowing Russia, France, and Britain to determine
the fate of Greece. In 1830 the powers declared
Greece independent. 3. France fell into
rebellion in 1830 when reactionary King Charles X
(1814-1830) revoked the Charter of 1814. This
July Revolution resulted in the bourgeoisie
moderates winning the appointment of Charles'
moderately liberal cousin, Louis-Philippe
(1830-1848), as king. In addition, a relatively
liberal constitution was enacted. 4. Nationalism
played a role in the independence of the former
Austrian Netherlands which had been annexed to
the Dutch Republic as part of the 1815
settlement. The success of the July Revolution
set off uprisings by liberals in the Netherlands.
Austria and Russia were eager to help the Dutch
but France opposed the intervention. Instead,
the major powers created the independent, neutral
state of Belgium in 1830. 5. At Modena, Parma,
and the Papal States in Italy the inspiration of
the July Revolution led the secret societies to
initiate revolts in 1830 against reactionary
governments. The revolts collapsed, however,
when Metternich sent in troops. 6. Poland had
been granted a liberal constitution by Alexander
I (1801-1825) of Russia when it was recreated by
the Congress of Vienna. Russian interference
became increasingly burdensome, however, and a
revolt broke out in 1830. By 1831 the rebellion
was crushed. Questions 1. Why was there concern
about the growth of liberalism? 2. Why were
England and France concerned about the continued
weakening of the Ottoman Empire?

• European Revolts in the 1820s and 1830s

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• Women attracted to socialism
• Flora Tristan (1803-1844)
• Utopian synthesis of socialism and feminism
• Revolution and Reform, 1830-1850
• French Revolution, 1830
• Charles X issues July Ordinances, July 26, 1830
• Censorship of the press, dissolves Legislative
  assembly, reduced electorate
• July Revolution
• Louis-Philippe, 1830-1848
• Favors the upper bourgeoisie
• Party of Movement
• Party of Resistance

13

• Revolutionary Outbursts in Belgium, Poland, and
  Italy
• Reform in Great Britain
• Reform Act of 1832
• Poor Law of 1834
• Repeal of the Corn Laws, 1846
• Growth of the United States
• Alexander Hamilton (1757-1804), Federalist
• Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), Republican
• John Marshall (1755-1835)
• Andrew Jackson (1767-1845), Democracy

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The Revolutions of 1848-1849 1. The Revolutions
of 1848 had their origin in France during the
European industrial and agricultural depression
of 1846. By the end of 1847 one-third of the
workers in Paris were unemployed. When the
government of King Louis-Philippe (1830-1848)
failed to make timely changes, a rebellion broke
out which forced the king to abdicate in February
1848. After the provisional government closed
some of the workshops another rebellion forced
the creation of a new constitution, thereby
establishing the Second French Republic. 2. The
news of the revolt in Paris and the activities of
the proletariat gave strength in Germany to both
the handicraft workers who wrecked machines and
factories and the peasants who burned and looted
the homes of the nobility. Several German
princes responded by offering liberal reforms
including constitutions. This was the case in
Baden, Wurttemberg, and Saxony. In Prussia, King
Frederick William IV (1840-1861) agreed in 1848
to establish a constitution and work for a united
Germany after violence exploded in Berlin. A
constituent assembly was formed but by early 1849
the king disbanded it, granting a conservative
constitution and reasserting rule by divine
right. Meanwhile, more than 800 self-appointed
German delegates met in Frankfurt, the seat of
the German Confederation, to write a federal
constitution for a unified Germany. When the
crown was offered Frederick William, he turned it
down. 3. Nationalist problems in Austria
centered on Hungary that had long agitated for
national autonomy. Demonstrations broke out in
Vienna, Prague, and Budapest in March 1848.
Vienna fell under the control of radicals and
workers who insisted on summoning a constituent
assembly to produce a liberal constitution.
Emperor Ferdinand I (1835-1848) soon capitulated
to the demands with the result that Hungary
gained a high degree of autonomy. The radical
nationalist under Lajos Kossuth also sought to
create a unified, centralized Hungary. To the
various minority groups of Czechs, Poles, Croats,
Serbs, and Romanians this was unacceptable since
they desired their own autonomy. In April 1848
Czech patriots won a separate Parliament for
Bohemia. This gave fire to similar desires in
Moravia (a Czech province), Galicia
(predominantly Polish), Dalmatia (a mixed Slavic
province), Croatia, and Transylvania
(predominantly Rumanian). The Habsburg monarchy
exploited the divergent demands and after
crushing the revolutionaries in Vienna struck at
Hungary in June 1849 with the aid of 140,000
troops from Russia. The Hungarian Revolution
collapsed. 4. In June 1848 Czech nationalism in
Bohemia came into conflict with the nationalism
of the dominant Germans. The differing
aspirations played into the hands of the
Austrians who sought to reestablish their
control. The Czech rebels in Prague were soon
crushed. 5. The failures of 1830-1831 in Italy
led to a new direction under the guidance of
Guiseppi Mazzini who sought both unification and
the expulsion of the Austrians. In 1848 liberal
rebellions spread north from Sicily. A republic
was proclaimed in Venice and it attacked Austrian
Lombardy but by 1849 both were back in Austrian
hands. Generally, the Italian revolts had
failed. Questions 1. What were the origins of
the Revolutions of 1848? 2. Why did the
Revolutions of 1848 generally fail?

• The Revolutions of 1848-1849

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• Revolutions of 1848
• French Revolution
• Louis-Philippe fails to initiate reform
• Abdication, February 24, 1848
• Provisional government
• National workshops
• June days
• Second Republic, November 4, 1848
• Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte
• Revolution in Central Europe
• Agricultural depression
• Revolt of handicraft workers
• Frederick William IV (1840-1860)
• Frankfurt Assembly

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• Austrian Empire
• Louis Kossuth, Hungary
• Francis Joseph I (1848-1916)
• Revolts in the Italian States
• Risorgimento (Resurgence) and Giuseppe Mazzini
  (1805-1872)
• Failures of 1848
• Divisions among the revolutionaries
• Failure to extend universal suffrage
• Divisions supporting self-government

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• The Emergence of an Ordered Society
• Development of New Police Forces
• Luis-Maurice Debelleyme, Parisian serjents
• Robert Peel, London bobbies
• Berlins Schutzmannschaft
• Poverty as a source of crime
• Institutes
• Reform of Prisons
• Auburn Prison
• Walnut Street model

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• Culture in an Age of Reaction and Revolution The
  Mood of Romanticism
• Characteristics of Romanticism
• Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832), The
  Sorrows of the Young Werther
• Thomas Carlyle (1795-1881)
• Geist (spirit that makes people unique)
• Gothic literature
• Romantic Poets and the Love of Nature
• Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822)
• Lord Byron (1788-1824)
• William Wordsworth (1770-1850)
• Mechanistic materialism

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• Romanticism in Art and Music
• Casper David Friedrich (1774-1840)
• God and nature
• Joseph Malford William Turner (1775-1851)
• Moods of nature
• Eugène Delacroix (1798-1863)
• Passion for color
• Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827)
• Hector Berlioz (1803-1869)
• Program music
• Revival of Religion
• François-René de Chateaubriand (1768-1848)
• Protestant evangelicalism and personal salvation