How to motivate

1
How to motivate normal people to behave in a
more proenvironmental way?

• Sebastian Bamberg
• University of Applied Science Bielefeld
• Sebastian.bamberg_at_fh-bielefeld.de

2
The Problem

• CO2 emissions are the central cause of climate
  change.
• Contribution of consumers behavior to
  CO2-emissions
• Transport ca. 20
• Home energy use (heating/cooling) ca. 35
• Nutrition (meat consumption) ca. 20

3
The Problem

• With growing insight into the harmful impact on
  the earths ecosystems of the lifestyles pursued
  in industrialized societies, behavioral change
  has become a central focus not only of climate
  protection policy but also of environmental
  psychology as an applied science.

4
The Problem

• How can we persuade people
• to switch transport modes,
• appliance choices,
• and eating habits
• in a way that will reduce their damaging impact
  on the environment?

5
The Role of Psychology

• It is trivial that problem awareness is a first
  precondition for behavioral change.
• Does problem awareness (high environmental
  consciousness) directly motivates behavioral
  change?

6
The Role of Psychology

• In Germany about 75 of the population view
  climate change as one of the most serious threats
  humanity is confronted with.
• However, only 9 are willing to personally adopt
  behaviors which would effectively contribute to
  the reduction of this threat.

7
Central Questions

• Obviously, even if people are aware of a problem
  it is a long way to actually change own behavior.

8
The Role of Psychology

• What motivates a person to critically reevaluate
  her/his current behavior?
• How does a behavioral change goal develop, how is
  it transformed into a concrete behavioral change
  strategy?
• How do individuals overcome the problems they
  encounter when trying to implement this new
  behavioral strategy?

9
STAGE MODELS

• In psychology stage models provide an interesting
  approach for answering these questions.
• Stage models explicitly focus on the dynamic,
  temporal aspects of behavioral change.

10
STAGE MODELS

• The central theoretical assumption underlying all
  stage models
• Behavioral change could be best modelled as a
  persons transition through a sequence of
  qualitatively different stages of behavioral
  change.
• In health psychology the Transtheoretical Modell
  (Prochaska Velicer, 1997) is a well known stage
  model.

11
Stage Model of Self-regulated behavioral Change
(SSBC, Bamberg 2011)

• Construes change as a process involving progress
  through a series of four stages
• Predecisional stage
• Preactional stage
• Actional stage
• Postactional stage

12
Stage Model of Self-regulated behavioral Change
(SSBC)

• These stages of behavioral change reflect
• four
• timely ordered,
• qualitatively different
• TASKS
• people have to solve for turning desired goals
  into behavioral practices.

13
Stage Model of Self-regulated behavioral Change
(SSBC, Bamberg 2011)

• The formation of the three intention types
• goal-intention
• behavioral intention
• implementation intention
• indicates that a person has successfully solved
  the respective stage specific task and can move
  on to the next stage.

14
Stage Model of Self-regulated Behavioral Change

• Mind set of people in the predecisional stage
• Perform the problem behavior on a regular,
  habitual basis.
• Are not fully aware of the negative consequences
  associated with this behavior, and thus see no
  reasons for behavioral change.
• Confronting people in this stage with a direct
  request to change their behavior runs the risk of
  triggering reactance.

15

• Stage Model of Self-regulated behavioral Change
  (SSBC) -Task of the first PRE-DECISIONAL stage

Preactional Stage
Actional Stage
Predecisional Stage
Postactional Stage
Transition point
Transition point
Transition point
Goal Intention
Behavioral Intention
Implementation Intention
Motivation task Raising doubts
Motivational task Selecting a change strategy
Motivational task Implemention of the change
strategy
Motivational task Habitualising the new behavior
16
Stage Model of Self-regulated Behavioral Change

• Mind set of people in the preactional stage
• People already have the general goal of changing
  their current behavior (high goal intention).
• However, because several actions (e.g. cycling,
  walking, public transport) could normally be used
  as a means to achieve this goal (e.g. car
  reduction), the task confronting them is to
  select the personally most suitable behavioral
  strategy.

17

• Stage Model of Self-regulated behavioral Change
  (SSBC)- Task of the second PRE-ACTIONAL stage

Preactional Stage
Actional Stage
Predecisional Stage
Postactional Stage
Transition point
Transition point
Transition point
Goal Intention
Implementation Intention
Behavioral Intention
Motivation task Raising doubts
Motivational task Selecting a change strategy
Motivational task Implemention of the change
strategy
Motivational task Habitualising the new behavior
18
Stage Model of Self-regulated Behavioral Change

• Mind set of people in the actional stage
• People not only possess a strong goal intention
  but also have formed a strong behavioral
  intention that is, they have made a decision on
  which new behavioral strategy they want to test
  instead of the old one.
• However, people often have difficulties to
  translate their good behavioral intentions into
  real action. That is, people often fail to do the
  things that they say they intent to do or fail to
  avoid doing things that they do not want to do
  (Orbell Sheeran, 1998).

19

• Stage Model of Self-regulated behavioral Change
  (SSBC)- Task of the third ACTIONAL stage

Preactional Stage
Actional Stage
Predecisional Stage
Postactional Stage
Transition point
Transition point
Transition point
Goal Intention
Behavioral Intention
Implementation Intention
Motivation task Raising doubts
Motivational task Selecting a change strategy
Motivational task Implemention of the change
strategy
Motivational task Habitualising the new behavior
20
Stage Model of Self-regulated Behavioral Change

• Mind set of people in the postactional stage
• Persons actually perform the selected new
  behavior for some time.
• In this stage they reflect on the experiences
  they have made with the new behavior and compare
  it critically with the old behavior.
• As a result, the main intervention task in this
  stage is twofold to provide feedback on how
  successfully they have achieved their personal
  change goal and to help them to cope with the
  temptation to relapse to the old behavior.

21

• Stage Model of Self-regulated behavioral Change
  (SSBC)- Task of the forth POST-ACTIONAL stage

• Evaluating what has achieved and to decide
  whether further action is necessary.
• Struggling with temptation that is, preventing a
  relapse into the old behavior.

Preactional Stage
Actional Stage
Predecisional Stage
Postactional Stage
Transition point
Transition point
Transition point
Goal Intention
Behavioral Intention
Implementation Intention
Motivation task Raising doubts
Motivational task Selecting a change strategy
Motivational task Implemention of the change
strategy
Motivational task Habitualising the new behavior
22

• Stage Model of Self-regulated behavioral Change
  (SSBC)

• How to explain the formation of the three
  critical transition points
• For intervention development precise information
  is needed concerning the determinants of the
  three critical intention types.
• These intention determinants are the direct
  intervention targets.

23

• SSBC - Processes contributing to the formation of
  a goal intention

Pre-decisional Stage
Pre-actional Stage
Transition point
24

• SSBC - Processes contributing to the formation of
  a behavioral intention

Pre-actional stage
Actional Stage
Attitudes toward alternative behavioral strategies
Goal intention
Behavioral intention
Perceived behaviroal control over alternative
behavioral strategies
Perceived goal feasibility
25

• SSBC- Processes contributing to the formation of
  an implementation intention

Actional Stage
Postactional Stage
Coping and action planning abilities
Behavioral Intention
Implementation Intention
New habit
Maintenance Self-efficacy
Perceived behaviroal control
26

• SSBC- Processes contributing to the maintenance
  of the new behavior

Postactional Stage
Maintenance Self-efficacy
Implementation Intention
New habit
Recovery Self-efficacy
27

• The stage model of self-regulated behavioral
  change

28

• Model specific focus Developing and testing
  action hypotheses for the SSBC.

29
Interventions targeting people in the
predecisional stage.

• The SSBC provides clear guidelines on which
  strategies interventions targeting people in the
  predecisional stage should focus on
• enhancing problem awareness
• increasing acceptance of personal responsibility
  
• making social norms salient
• strengthening perceived ability to change current
  behavior and
• promoting the formation of a clear and
  challenging, but not excessive personal change
  goal.

30
Interventions targeting people in the
predecisional stage.

• However, because of the aforementioned risk of
  eliciting reactance, the intervention should
  include not only arguments promoting behavioral
  change but also elements trying to reduce
  reactance.
• Research (e.g., Knowles Riner, 2007) has
  indicated that one of the most effective ways to
  reduce reactance is to merely acknowledge the
  fact that the person might feel some resistance.

31
Interventions targeting people in the preactional
stage

• The main task people are confronted with in this
  stage is to select the personally most suitable
  behavioral strategy.
• Consequently, the main intervention goal in this
  stage is to provide more knowledge about the pros
  and cons as well as the personal feasibility of
  behavioral alternatives, and then help people to
  select their personally most suitable behavioral
  alternative

32
Interventions targeting people in the preactional
stage

• Besides promoting arguments, interventions for
  people in the preactional stage should also
  include arguments targeting potential sources of
  reactance/resistance
• According to Knowles and Riner (2007), one
  effective strategy to deal with concerns about an
  offer consists in giving guarantees.
• In the mobility case for example, participants
  could be offered a possibility to test whether
  public transport services fit their purposes with
  a free one-week travel pass.

33
Interventions targeting people in the actional
stage.

• In this stage the main task people are confronted
  with is to translate their good behavioral
  intentions into real action.
• Gollwitzer (1999 Gollwitzer Sheeran, 2006)
  proposed that explicitly motivating people to
  plan the when, where, and how to enact the
  intended new behavior is a simple and effective
  strategy for dealing with this problem.

34
Interventions targeting people in the
postactional stage

• In this stage people are reflecting on the
  experiences they have made with the new behavior
  and are comparing it critically with the old
  behavior.
• As a result, the main intervention task in this
  stage is twofold to provide feedback on how
  successfully they have achieved their personal
  change goal and to help them to cope with the
  temptation to relapse to the old behavior.

35
Interventions targeting people in the
postactional stage

• As a consequence, besides repeating and
  strengthening the positive consequences
  associated with the new behavior and helping them
  to overcome barriers, the focus of interventions
  should be on providing social support.
• This could be done by explicitly thanking and
  praising people for their good decision and
  offering them a small gift in recognition.

36
Interventions targeting people in the
postactional stage

• Besides asking them whether they need additional
  information, another intervention element for
  this stage group consists in motivating them to
  think about buying a permanent monthly or annual
  public transport pass.
• The idea behind this intervention element is to
  increase participants commitment to their
  current behavior and to strengthen its habitual
  nature.

37
From the Model to a Real InterventionThe Berlin
Intervention Study

• General aim
• To test the ability of a stage-based phone
  marketing campaign to promote voluntary car use
  reduction for daily trips in Berlin.
• General logic of the intervention approach
• Using personal contact (a phone call) to
  motivate car users
• Tailoring the intervention to the persons
  current behavioral change stage.
• Combining personal contact with supporting print
  materials
• Repeating the intervention (2 times)

38
The Berlin Intervention StudyIntervention
Elements

• Invitation letter contains the stage diagnosis
  tool
• Specific dialogue modules for the phone contact
  with participants in the
• pre-decisional stage
• pre-actional stage
• actional stage
• post-actional stage
• Stage specific support print materials

39

• Guidelines for Developing Stage-specific
  Intervention Modules Aiming to Trigger Stage
  Transition

40
Intervention Effects

• H1 The stage-based dialogue marketing
  intervention has a significant effect on
  post-intervention travel behavior.
• H2 The effect of the stage-based dialog
  marketing intervention is significantly stronger
  than the effect of a standardized information
  intervention.

41
Effect of the Berlin Dialogue Marketing
Campaign on Car Use for Daily Trips ANOVA F (2,
243) 5.31, p lt .01
p .001
p .30
p .01
42
Effect of the Berlin Dialogue Marketing
Campaign on PT Use for Daily Trips ANOVA F (2,
243) 3.31, p lt .05
p .02
p .03
p .80
43
Identification of four Stage Groups

• H3 With help of the information obtained by a
  newly developed stage measure in the total sample
  four homogeneous subgroups could be identified
  representing the four stage groups of behavioral
  change.

44
The Stage Measure1. part Six statements
representing the stage typical mind-sets
45
The Stage Measure2. part Current behavior
46
Empirical Evidence for the Postulated four Stage
Groups Results of a Latent Class Cluster Analysis
(LCCA)
Half Year Test-Re-Test Reliability gamma .74
rank-correlation .66
47
Post-intervention Behavioral Profils of the four
Stage Groups
Planned contrasts indicate significant
differences in Car und PT use between the two
earlier and to later stages of behavioral
change Furthermore, there is a significant
decrease in car use and increase in PT use from
actional to postactional stage.
48
Testing the role of the three intention types as
stage transition points

• H4a A strong goal intention is significantly
  associated with the probability of assignment to
  the preactional stage,
• H4b A strong behavioral intention significantly
  associated with the assignment probability to the
  actional stage,
• H4c A strong implementation intention
  significantly associated with the assignment
  probability to the postactional stage.

49
Results of a non-proportional ordinal logistic
regression analysis Odds Ratio (OR) Estimates
50
Stage Transition as mechanism mediating the
intervention effect on behavior

• H5 The intervention triggers a significantly
  stronger transition from earlier to later stages.
• H6 The intervention effect on behavior is
  mediated by its effect on stage progression
  after controlling for the intervention effect on
  stage transition, the direct intervention effect
  on behavior is no longer significant.

51
Mediates Stage Transition the Intervention
Effect?
52
Predictive power of the stage-specific variable
sets

• H7 The proposed sets of socio-cognitive
  variables are strong predictors of the three
  transition points goal-intention, behavioral
  intention, and implementation intention.

53
Empirical Model TestStructural Equation Model (N
1.055)
Estimator MLRModel Fit Chi-squ. 1.129,163
df 505 CFI 0.94 TLI 0.94 RMSEA 0.034
Probability RMSEA lt .05 is 1.000
54
Conclusion

• The presented results provide some evidence that
  stage models may be an interesting framework for
  intervention development.
• Central limitation
• Study provides no evidence that stage-based
  interventions are more effective than non-stage
  based interventions.
• For this purpose other experimental designs are
  needed

55
What intervention techniques are effective in the
pre-decisional stage (promoting the formation of
a goal intention)?

• Remember
• Comparing current behavior with important
  personal standards is viewed as critical in the
  pre-decisional stage.
• Self-Awareness as the critical psychological
  stage.

56
The Induced Hypocrisy Techniques

• Theoretical basis Cognitive Dissonance Theory
  and Self-Consistency Theory
• Assumption
• Rendering salient inconsistencies between actual
  behavior and important self-standards raises
  negative feelings in a person which motivate
  her/him to re-adjust her/his behavior in line
  with her/his self-standards.

57
The Induced Hypocrisy Techniques

• Procedure
• The IH paradigm relies on a two-stages procedure.
  In a first, public commitment, stage
  participants are asked to make public statements
  that are supportive of the attitudinal object
  under study (e.g., they have to make public
  statements about the importance of energy
  saveing).
• In a second, mindfulness, stage they are rendered
  mindful of their own behavioral transgressions of
  their self-standards (e.g., they have to recall
  instances of
• behaviors in which they did not perform in a
  energy saving way).

58
The Induced Hypocrisy Techniques

• Procedure
• People facing such inconsistencies should realize
  that they do not behave in agreement with what
  they preach for others, that is they behave in a
  hypocritical way.

59
The Induced Hypocrisy Techniques

• Practical implementation
• A sample of 100 students were unsystematically
  approached on the university campus. Using a
  randomization procedure half of them were
  confronted to a IH procedure (experimental
  group). The other half completed only a
  questionnaire (control group).
• Participants in the IH condition were asked for a
  contribution for a planned high school lesson
  aiming to promote energy saving behavior.
• For this purpose participants were asked to allow
  to photograph them. Then they were asked to
  complete the phase Energy saving is important
  for me, because... with a own statement (public
  commitment stage).
• After that they were asked to complete a scale
  measuring participants actual performance of 10
  energy saving behaviors. Half of the items asked
  for behaviors which are not performed by the
  majority of the German population(e.g., not using
  the plane for vacation trips, always switching of
  the stand by function). The function of the scale
  was to render participants mindful of their own
  behavioral transgressions of their self-standards
  (mindfullness stage)

60
What intervention techniques are effective in the
pre-actional/ actional stage (promoting the
formation of a behavioral/ implementation
intention)?

• Remember
• Reflecting about the pros and cons of alternative
  behaviors as well as planning the when, where,
  and how of action initiation are viewed as
  critical in these stages.

61
The MCII - Technique

• In mental contrasting, people (1) name their most
  important feasible wish that is directed toward
  changing their behavior (e.g., regular physical
  activity), (2) name and imagine the most positive
  outcome of successfully changing their behavior
  (e.g., being in better shape), and (3) name and
  imagine the most critical obstacle that stands in
  the way of wish fulfillment (e.g., being tired
  after work).
• If participants expect that they can realize
  their wish, mental contrasting leads to strong
  behavioral change intention.

62
The MCIITechnique

• The thus strengthened behavioral intention is
  then supplemented by a procedure aiming to
  promote the precise planning when, where and how
  to implement this intention (e.g., If the weather
  is fine tomorrow morning, then I will bike to
  work!)
• The combination of mental contrasting and
  behavioral planning should have a strong impact
  on behavior change because the two strategies
  complement each other.

63
The MCIITechnique

• Procedure
• In the first step participants write down four
  items (1) their most important current wish
  regarding physical activity (e.g., biking to
  work) (2) the most positive outcome of realizing
  their wish (e.g., getting into better shape) and
  events and experiences they associated with this
  positive outcome (3) the most critical obstacle
  (e.g., getting up too late) together with events
  and experiences they associated with this
  obstacle.

64
The MCIITechnique

• Procedure
• In the next step with the following questions
  participants are motivated to for three
  behavioral plans (1) When and where does the
  obstacle occur, and what can I do to overcome or
  circumvent the obstacle?
• (2) When and where is an opportunity to prevent
  the obstacle from occurring, and what can I do to
  prevent it from occurring? and
• (3)When and where is a good opportunity for me to
  act on my wish, and what would this action be?

65
The MCIITechnique

• Procedure
• For example, a participant could counter the
  obstacle of
• getting up too late with the plan If I get up
  too late, then Ill skip the morning news!

66
Effect of the Induced Hypocrisy Technique
Effekte der Hypercrisy-Intervention getrennt für
beide Stage Gruppen
Predecisional/Preactional Predecisional/Preactional Predecisional/Preactional Predecisional/Preactional Predecisional/Preactional Decisional/Actional Decisional/Actional Decisional/Actional Decisional/Actional Decisional/Actional
Control Group Control Group Experimental Group Experimental Group Control Group Control Group Experimental Group Experimental Group
Variable M SD M SD M SD M SD
Social Norm 1.52 1.18 1.73 1.23 1.43 1.18 1.33 1.06
Personal moral norm 2.67 1.16 3.42 0.64 2.96 0.94 2.84 0.85
Goal Intention 2.87 0.92 3.66 0.46 3.27 0.66 3.06 0.65
Behavioral attitude 3.14 0.66 3.55 0.62 3.27 0.67 3.30 0.48
Behavioral PBC 2.98 0.76 3.05 0.88 2.81 0.83 2.78 0.88
Behavioral Intention 2.54 1.03 3.11 0.98 2.82 0.77 2.76 0.76
Implementation Intention 1.63 1.21 2.44 1.33 1.72 1.20 1.80 1.09
67
Effect of the MCII Technique
Effekte der Hypercrisy-Intervention getrennt für
beide Stage Gruppen
Predecisional/Preactional Predecisional/Preactional Predecisional/Preactional Predecisional/Preactional Predecisional/Preactional Decisional/Actional Decisional/Actional Decisional/Actional Decisional/Actional Decisional/Actional
Control Group Control Group Experimental Group Experimental Group Control Group Control Group Experimental Group Experimental Group
Variable M SD M SD M SD M SD
Social Norm 0.66 0.83 0.49 0.75 0.67 0.77 0.87 1.10
Personal moral norm 0.99 1.01 1.42 1.13 1.99 1.19 2.75 1.01
Goal Intention 1.12 0.98 1.56 1.22 2.27 1.03 3.08 0.86
Behavioral attitude 2.42 0.88 2.46 1.07 3.06 0.69 3.41 0.49
Behavioral PBC 1.57 0.94 1.84 1.15 2.39 1.10 2.94 0.73
Behavioral Intention 1.34 0.90 1.66 1.18 2.34 0.92 3.08 0.63
Implementation Intention 0.79 0.76 1.24 1.30 1.27 1.05 2.11 1.09
Meat Consumption 3.94 3.13 6.00 3.69 3.44 2.69 1.74 2.57
68
Effect of the MCII Technique
Hypocrisy Intervention
MCII Intervention
Attitude (Behavior) R2 .35
.19
.10
.06
.31
.23
.08
.30
.28
.28
Social Norm (Goal) R2 .05
Personal Norm (Goal) R2 .18
Goal Intention R2 .64
Behavioral Intention R2 .73
Implementation Intention R2 .44
Behavior (Meat Consumption) R2 .22
.23
.01
.52
.23
.68
.32
.20
-.46
.29
PBC (Behavior) R2 .51
Goal Feasibility R2 .10
.48
.18