PILOT NAVIGATION

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PILOT NAVIGATION

• Senior/Master Air Cadet

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Learning Outcomes
Know the basic features of air navigation and
navigational aids
Understand the techniques of flight planning
Understand the affects of weather on aviation
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Flight Planning
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Introduction
We discussed the triangle of velocities and
looked briefly at how the triangle is solved
We shall revise the components of the triangle
and learn how this helps us to plan a flight and
then notify other people of our intentions.
That is how we calculate some of the unknown
components of the triangle from those that we know
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Triangle of Velocities
One side represents movement of the aircraft in
still air
Comprises of 3 vectors ( a vector being a
component of the triangle having both direction
speed ) drawn to scale
Another represents wind speed direction
The third shows the actual movement of the plane
over the surface of the earth As a result of
the other 2 vectors
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Triangle of Velocities
Thus there are 6 components
Wind Speed
Wind Direction
Aircraft Heading
True Airspeed
Groundspeed
Track
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Solution of the Triangle
Mental arithmetic
Micro computers
As long as we have 4 of the components it can be
solved by a number of methods
Scale drawing on graph paper
Dalton dead reckoning computer
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Flight Planning

Both in private aviation military training
flight planning is carried out using a Pilot Nav
Log Card
On this card the flight is divided into a number
of legs
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Flight Planning
The card is divided into a number of legs
Before the flight the Triangle Of Velocities
is solved for each leg
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Flight Planning
However there is more to be done before the
goal is reached
First, the pilot needs to know the tracks and
distances of the various legs
So he draws them on a route chart
We will now look at a flight of a bulldog from
Leeming to Marham via Cottesmore
departing from Leeming at 1000 hrs
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Flight Planning
The wind forecast is southerly for the first leg
The Wind Forecast Is South Westerly For The
Second Leg
Looking at the map the wind lines are drawn on
you can see there should be a headwind for leg 1
(GS lt TAS )
Producing A Crosswind For Leg 2 (Hdg Track
Differ By Drift)
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Flight Planning - Log Entries
TRACK
The Pilot Must Enter Various Details On The Log
Card Before Applying The Triangle Of Velocities
Measured With A Protractor
DISTANCE
Measured From The Chart
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Flight Planning - Log Entries
Forecast V/W
Forecast Air Temperature
Indicated Air Speed
Height The Leg To Be Flown
Decided By Operational, Safety Other Needs
Normally The Recommending Cruising Speed
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Flight Planning - Log Entries
TRUE AIRSPEED
Found from the Peripheral Information on the Chart
VARIATION
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Flight Planning Triangle of Velocities
Usually the Pilot Would use the Rotatable
Compass Rose or Dalton Computer
We Must Use Graph Paper
The Theory is the same but the Dalton Computer is
much quicker
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Flight Planning Triangle of Velocities
Once these are entered The Triangle of Velocities
can be used to calculate, for each Leg
The Heading to counter the wind
The Groundspeed
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Flight Planning Triangle of Velocities
We already have 4 of the 6 elements of the
triangle (1st leg)
WIND DIRECTION 180º
WIND SPEED 30 KT
TRACK 161º
TAS 125 KT
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Flight Planning Triangle of Velocities
We First Draw The W/V From The Direction 180º
Give It A Length Of 3 Units ( To Represent 30 Kt)
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Flight Planning Triangle of Velocities
Next, at the downwind end of the W/V draw the
Trk/GS line in direction 161º It is an unknown
length
This length, the Groundspeed, is one element we
will discover
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Flight Planning Triangle of Velocities
All We Currently Know Is That The GS Will Be Less
Than The TAS Of 125 Kt (We Know This From The
Log Card)
So The Max Length Of The Line Will Be 12.5 Graph
Units
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Flight Planning Triangle of Velocities
Next at the other end of the W/V line draw the
HDG/TAS line to A length of 12.5 graph units
(for the speed of 125 kt)
to where it crosses the GS line work out the
angle with a pair of geometry compasses
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Flight Planning Triangle of Velocities
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Flight Planning Triangle of Velocities
We Can Now Calculate That The Length Of The
TRK/GS Line Is 9.6 Units So The GS Will Be 96 Kt
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Flight Planning Triangle of Velocities
Using A Protractor We Find The HDG/TAS Is 166º.
We Can Now Apply The Magnetic Variation Of 7º To
166º(t) To Give A Heading Of 173º (M)
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Flight Planning Triangle of Velocities
Entering These On The Log Card We Can Work Out
The Leg Time By Using The Gs Of 96kt Distance
Of 98nm To Give 61¼ Minutes From Leeming To
Cottlesmore
We Can Do The Same For The Second Leg To Marham
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Fuel Planning
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Fuel Planning
One of the main purposes of calculating flight
times is to ensure sufficient fuel is available
If this happens in a car it is inconvenient, in
an aircraft it can be fatal
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Fuel Planning
The bulldog consumes fuel at
12 gallons an hour
So 12.3 gallons are needed for the first leg
12/60 X 61.25 12.25
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Other Information
The most important is the Safety Altitude
This is the height a pilot must climb to, or not
fly below, in Instrument Meteorological
Conditions (IMC)
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Other Information
This ensures the aircraft does not hit the ground
or obstacles such as TV masts
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Other Information
Safety Altitude is calculated by adding 1000 to
the highest elevation on or near the track
rounding it up to the next 100
In mountainous regions a greater safety height
is added
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Other Information
An aircraft can not descend below the safety
height unless the crew has good visual contact
with the ground or the services of ATC
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ATC Flight Plan
Aircraft crews must notify ATC of their
intentions so the overdue action can be initiated
if the aircraft is overdue
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ATC Flight Plan
Additionally aircraft entering busy airspace have
to submit a flight plan so their flight can be
coordinated with other aircraft
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ATC Flight Plan
ATC has a standard format for this, including
Aircraft call sign
Aircraft type
Time place of departure
Route
ETA
Speed altitude
Safety info
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Conclusion
The principles of flight planning are the same
for across country flight in a bulldog or a
Intercontinental flight on a Boeing
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Conclusion

• We must measure tracks distances from a
  chart/databases,
• Calculate the effects of the weather (especially
  the wind) ,
• Have sufficient fuel,
• inform ATC along the route

This ensures that if anything goes wrong help
will be available immediately
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Position Fixing
?
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Introduction
In the pioneering days of aviation aircraft could
not fly unless the crew could see the ground, as
map reading was the only means of navigating
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Introduction
Later aircraft where fitted with sextants radio
direction finding equipment, but the big strides
occurred during after the second world war
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Introduction
It was not until the 1970s that world wide
coverage with a navigation aid known as Omega was
achieved
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Introduction
More recently Satellite Navigation (SatNav) the
Global Position Satellite have come into use
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Introduction
Any process of finding an aircrafts position is
known as
Fixing
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Visual Fixing
There are many factors affecting map reading
At this moment we need to know that when you look
out of an aircraft identify some unique
feature this gives a visual fix know as a pinpoint
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Visual Fixing
The accuracy depends on the uniqueness of the
feature, accuracy of the map, skill of the
observer
It is still a reliable method is used in the
early training of crews
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Radio Aids
If you move a radio through 360º in the
horizontal plane you should find 2 points where
reception is good 2 points where it is bad
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Radio Aids
The radio direction finder (RDF) works on this
principle. It shows , on a dial in the aircraft,
its bearing from a transmitting beacon.
As long as the position of the Tx beacon is known
a position line can be drawn, with the
aircraft being somewhere along this line
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Radio Aids
If 2 further position lines can be plotted, with
2 other known beacons, preferably at 60º to one
another, then a 3 position line fix can be
obtained
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Radio Aids
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Radio Aids
This was a main method in the 1920s 1930s.
However it does depend on the range of the beacon
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VOR/DME TACAN
A more modern method of gathering position lines
is from VOR/DME TACAN beacons
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VOR/DME TACAN
TACAN is a military system, gives the magnetic
bearing, or radial, from the beacon to the
aircraft and the slant range
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VOR/DME TACAN
LYE Ch 35 (109.8)
Bearing - 280º Slant - 55 nm
The above airfield has a TACAN on channel 35
transmits its ID code in Morse - l y e
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VOR/DME TACAN
VOR/DME is a civilian system
It gives the magnetic bearing, or radial, from
the beacon to the aircraft and the slant range
although the information is less accurate
Civil aircraft fly from beacon to beacon
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VOR/DME TACAN
There is a beacon at Stappleford airfield
operating on 115.6mhz
On CHANNEL 103
Lima Alpha Mike
CALLSIGN
L A M
FOR LAMBOURNE
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Astro Navigation
Radio beacons are ideal for overland flights, but
for overseas flight early aircrew used the stars
The principle behind this is that if you think
you know your position (dead or deduced
reckoning) you can calculate the relative
position of the star
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Astro Navigation
Using a sextant to measure the angle accurately
you can compare the actual position of the star
to its calculated position
The difference between the 2 represents the error
in the DR position. As with RDF 2 or 3 fixes are
needed
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Astro Navigation
This can be extremely accurate, but is being
replaced with GPS
However it cannot be jammed by an enemy!
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Radar Navigation
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Radar Navigation
Radar was invented in the 1930s rapidly
developed
Early systems where crude unreliable
Modern systems , such as used in tornado are
highly effective
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Radar Navigation
This enables the radar picture to be matched to a
very accurate map by the press of a button
This enables the navigator to concentrate on
other tasks, such as weapon system management
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Radar Navigation
The main problems is that the radar transmits
electronic emissions which are detectable,
radar failure
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Radar Navigation
With the rapid development of electronics in the
1950s 60s area navigation systems where
introduced
GEE
DECCA
LORAN
OMEGA
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Radar Navigation
These work by measuring the time it takes for 2
synchronized signals to arrive from 2 different
stations. Each pair gives a position line
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Radar Navigation
With the advent of global position satellites
fixs will be available at the touch of a button
with accuracies of a few metres
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Active/Passive Systems
We have already seen that the main disadvantage
of radar navigation is their liability to
disclosed there presence location to the enemy
This had lead to the development of Radar Homing
Missiles
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Active/Passive Systems
Scientists have developed electronic warfare to
enable the use of radar. This includes frequency
hoping smart radars. It is a ever evolving area
EW measures are used to protect active
navigation systems, but another approach is to
use equipment that do not transmit, but merely
receive
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Active/Passive Systems
This includes GPS information combined with
Internal Navigation Systems. These are known as
Passive Systems