Unit V

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Unit V Motivation and Emotion

• Memory/Cognition What we know about the world
• Learning How we make associations between
  causes and effects
• Motivation What effects do we really desire

2
Learning

• The studies of how learning works are some of the
  earliest of psychology and are the most
  informative of the debate of the soul.

3
Habituation

• Habituation the simplest and most basic form of
  learning
• It is the decline in the tendency to respond to a
  stimuli after repeated exposure.
• Not only do our senses tune out constant stimuli,
  but we also consciously learn to ignore them.
• Habituation is an adaptive advantage as organisms
  need to function without constantly reacting to
  threatening stimuli

4
Habituation works closely with memory

• Short-term habituation responses to stimuli
  decrease quickly after repeated exposures over a
  short time. Eg. 300 loud sounds over 5 hours.
• Spontaneous recovery after an extended delay,
  short term habituation is extinguished and the
  response returns.
• Long term habituation responses to a stimuli
  decrease gradually after repeated exposures over
  a long time. Eg. 1 loud sound per day for 1 month.

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Classical Conditioning

• Habituation is the recognition of events as
  familiar, learning is the relationship between
  events and circumstances. These relationships are
  called associations.
• Experimental study of associations did not begin
  until Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

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Pavlovs Dog

• A dog was prepared for this experiment by having
  a small operation exposing the salivary gland to
  the surface, which made it possible to measure
  salivation automatically.Then the dog, which is
  fastened by leashes such that he cannot move, is
  given food while ringing a bell. This procedure
  was repeated several times.

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• Before training
• US (food in mouth) ------------? UR (salivation)
• CS (bell ringing) --------------? No response
• Training
• CS (bell ringing) US ( food in mouth)
• After training
• CS (bell ringing) ----------------? CR
  (salivation) formerly the UR
• Once the training is finished, the dog will now
  salivate at the sound of the bell, which
  previously had no effect on the dog.

8
The Reflex

• Unconditioned reflex The innate relationship
  between stimuli and involuntary responses.
  Composed of an unconditioned stimulus (US) and an
  unconditioned response (UR)
• Conditioned reflex Relationships between
  stimuli and responses that result from
  experience. Composed of a conditioned stimulus
  (CS) and a conditioned response (CR)

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Reinforcement

• Through training, the unconditioned stimulus is
  paired with the conditioned stimulus.
• Trials where the US occurs with the CS are
  reinforced
• Trials where the US occurs without the CS are
  unreinforced
• The tendency of the CS to elicit the CR, and the
  strength of the CR, go up the more often they are
  reinforced this can be plotted on the learning
  curve.

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The Learning Curve

• Learning curve Learning is proportional to
  prediction error (received-predicted reward) and
  reaches an asymptote as the prediction error
  approaches zero. prediction, and are learning
  constants, reward.

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Unlearning

• Extinction the greater the number of
  unreinforced trials, the weaker the strength of
  the CR until it no longer occurs.
• Reconditioning extinct CRs can be reconditioned
  through further reinforced trials. Reconditioning
  a CS takes fewer trials than the initial
  conditioning.
• Spontaneous recovery an extinguished CR will
  reappear after a rest interval.

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Response Strength

• There are 3 ways to measure the strength of the
  CR
• Response amplitude The intensity of the
  response. Eg. How much saliva the dog produced.
• Probability of response The proportion of
  trials in which the CR occurred when the CS was
  presented alone. Eg. The number of times the dog
  drooled when hearing the bell alone
• Response latency the time from the presentation
  of the CS to the CR. Eg. The amount ot time it
  took the dog to drool after hearing the bell
  alone.

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The implications of Pavlovs discoveries has been
instrumental in many different fields eg.
Advertising
14

• Generalization the CS does not have to be
  identical in every trial, a range of variation
  will still elicit a CR even though the strength
  is reduced, this reduction is called
  generalization decrement.
• Discrimination - subjects can be conditioned to
  distinguish between very small differences in
  stimuli.
• pairing slightly different stimuli with
  reinforced trials, and others with unreinforced
  trials
• Discrimination is important because it shows that
  learning is taking place. It takes multiple
  trials to get the subject to remember which is
  the right CS and which is the unreinforced CS.

15
Fear

• Studies in fear have been linked with classical
  conditioning from its inception

16
Phobias

• When a negative stimulus (an electric shock) is
  paired with a CS (a light going on) any learned
  behaviour will cease this is called response
  suppression.
• Many fears that adults have is closely linked
  with classical conditioning. If the fears are
  intense enough, they can be deemed phobias.

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CR and UR

• Fear highlights an important relationship between
  the CR and the UR the CS (the bell) is a
  signal for the US (the food) but is not a
  substitute for it.
• The CS causes the subject to prepare for the US
  and the subsequent CR. This occurs unconsciously
  and involuntarily.

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Compensatory Reaction

• Compensatory reaction The conditioned response
  works opposing the unconditioned response
• When diabetics receive insulin shots, their
  bodies react to the CS of the needle and the
  injection process by raising its blood sugar
  level.
• The same will occur in drug addicts the drug
  heroin induces feelings of euphoria, relaxation,
  and relief from pain. Therefore the CS of the
  drug needle and the usual injection procedures
  can cause the body to ache, to become restless,
  and depressed.

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• This requires the addict to raise the dose of the
  injection to attain the same effect each time
  they inject.
• However, in the absence of the usual CS, the body
  will not compensate and the same dosage will be
  fatal.

20
Journal

• What makes horror movies so frightening?
• Explain how they work (sights and sounds) to make
  changes occur to your body and behaviour.

21
Instrumental Conditioning

• Studies in Instrumental Conditioning began before
  Pavlov with the development of the theory of
  evolution by Charles Darwin were we just a type
  of ape? Or was mankind special in some way?

22
E.L. Thorndike

• E.L. Thorndike became one of the most important
  figures in the history of science with his work
  with problem solving and animals.

23

• Thorndike placed a cat in the cage and observed
  how the cat learned to escape. The cat was then
  put back in the cage and Thorndike timed how long
  it would take for the cat to master the solution
  to the box (his chosen measure of learning).
• Thorndike plotted a learning curve for the cats
  speed of success.

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The learning curve

• What would be expected to happen IF the cat was
  intelligent?
• The cat would learn quickly sudden insight
• What would be expected to happen IF the cat was
  NOT intelligent?
• The cat would learn gradually trial and error

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The Law of Effect

• Based on his results, Thorndike proposed his Law
  of Effect
• The consequences of a response determine whether
  the tendency to perform it is strengthened or
  weakened. If the response is followed by a
  satisfying event (e.g., access to food), it will
  be strengthened of the response is not followed
  by a satisfying event, it will be weakened.

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• When introduced to a new environment, a subject
  will produce infinite random behaviours. As some
  behaviours lead to success and others to failure,
  certain behaviour patterns will dominate and
  others become extinguished. Note the absence of
  reason or intelligence.

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B.F. Skinner

• Most of the early research on instrumental
  learning was performed by B. F. Skinner. Skinner
  proposed that instrumental learning and classical
  conditioning were fundamentally different
  processes.

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Classical vs. Instrumental Conditioning

• Because the response precedes the reinforcement,
  rather than follows it.
• Because the response is voluntary, it must be
  selected from an infinite number of possible
  actions.

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Operant Conditioning

• Instrumental Conditioning also called Operant
  Conditioning The learning process through which
  the consequence of an operant response affects
  the likelihood that the response will be produced
  again in the future.

30
Skinner Box

• Skinner devised a box in which a mechanism can be
  operated to produce a reinforcer. The animal can
  be left in the box to respond however it chooses.
  Skinner measured the number of responses as an
  indication of learning.

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Man vs. Animal

• Skinner argued that everything we do can be
  attributed to this process of reinforcement
  whether we are aware of the consequences of our
  actions or not.

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Skinner identified three consequences for
behaviour

• 1) Positive Reinforcement - Any stimulus that
  increases the probability of a behaviour
• 2) Negative Reinforcement - Any stimulus whose
  removal increases the probability of a behaviour.
  
• 3) Punishment - Any stimulus whose presence (or
  absence in negative reinforcement) decreases the
  probability of behaviour.
• Skinner thought that punishment was the least
  effective of the 3 possible consequences for
  learning.

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• Shaping reinforcing behaviours that are
  increasingly similar to the desired responses.

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2 important facts

• The larger the reinforcer, the more rapid the
  extinction.
• The greater the number of training trials, the
  more rapid the extinction.

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Reinforcement schedules

• Continuous Reinforcement every response is
  reinforced
• Partial Reinforcement only some responses are
  reinforced.
• Learning is faster with continuous reinforcement
  but extinction takes longer with partial
  reinforcement.

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Four basic schedules of partial reinforcement

• Ratio schedules reinforcer given after some
  number of responses.
• Interval schedules reinforcer given after some
  time period.
• Fixed the number of responses or time period is
  held constant.
• Variable the number of responses or the time
  period is varied.

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Resulting behaviour

• Fixed-Ratio bursts of responses.
• Variable-Ratio high, steady rate of responding.
  (Slot machines work on a V-R schedule).
• Fixed-Interval pauses with accelerating
  responses as the time approaches.
• Variable-Interval after training, a slow, steady
  pattern of responses is usually seen.

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Cognitive Learning

• Opposing the mechanical view of learning and
  emotions depicted by Skinner, Thorndike and
  Pavlov were other scientists who believed that
  there was more going on than simple trial and
  error they felt that even the simplest animals
  were forming knowledge.

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Edward Tolman

• Edward Tolman believed that animals were
  acquiring knowledge about their surroundings he
  called cognitions.
• He found that rats being transported around his
  laboratory were showing evidence that they had
  learned something about the space in later tests.

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Test subjects were forming relationships between
the CS and US based on 2 factors

• Contiguity togetherness in time studies showed
  that there was an optimum amount of time that
  should pass between the CS and the US for
  conditioning.
• Contingency the occurrence of the US depends on
  the CS there are a multitude of stimuli that
  occur before the US that could also be
  interpreted as the CS. Subjects learned which of
  these stimuli signalled the coming of the US by
  experiencing the absence of the CS and the
  corresponding absence of the US.

41
These studies indicated that the animals were
reasoning that the CS was a probable indicator of
the US more than other stimuli occurring in the
environment at the time.
42
Fear vs. Anxiety

• When these ideas are applied to negative stimuli
  (electric shocks) they highlight the difference
  between fear and anxiety.
• When a tone precedes an electric shock 60 of
  trials, subjects would react to the tone with
  tension and response suppression - fear.
• When there was no stimuli that would predict that
  a shock was coming reliably, the animal
  constantly shows fear and suffers long term
  physiological consequences anxiety

43
Response Control

• Subjects that were tested in conditions where
  they could respond to avoid their negative
  stimuli developed response control
• Infants who can control the movement of their
  crib mobiles show more interest in them.

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• Subjects tested in conditions where they could
  not respond to avoid negative stimuli displayed
  learned helplessness an acquired sense that
  environmental control is not possible so no
  efforts are made.

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• Two groups of dogs were strapped into hammocks
  and subjected to electric shocks after the
  presentation of a 3 second tone. The dogs in
  group A were given to ability to avoid these
  shocks by pressing a level with their nose. The
  shocks of the two groups were linked, if the dogs
  in group A avoided the shock, so would their
  partners in B. Each group of dogs received the
  same level of shocks but only the dogs in group A
  could control them.

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• When the dogs were then placed in a shuttle box
  (a cage divided in half by a low partition) A
  tone would precede a shock through the floor of
  the cage. The dogs from group A quickly learned
  to jump the divider at the tone to avoid the
  shock the dogs in group B simply laid down on
  the floor of the cage and took the shocks.

47

• Learned helplessness has been linked to
  depression because they both carry the same
  symptoms (suppressed immune systems, weight loss,
  excessive sleep, etc.)

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Motivation

• Motivation the needs, wants, interests, and
  desires that propel people in certain directions

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Humans display a huge range of goal-directed
behaviour. These behaviours can be highly complex
and their dynamics known only to the agent

• These can be divided into two main categories
• Biological motives originate in bodily needs
  such as hunger or excretion.
• Social motives originate in social experiences
  such as achievement

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Biological Motives

• Hunger
• Thirst
• Sex
• Temperature
• Excretion
• Sleep
• Activity
• Aggression

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Social Motives

• Achievement
• Affiliation
• Autonomy
• Nurturance
• Dominance
• Exhibition
• Order
• Play

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Attribution Errors

• Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE) - The bias to
  attribute behaviour to stable internal causes
  rather than external ones

53
FAE expression factors

• What if we tell people what behaviours they must
  express?
• This has been shown to be consistent even when
  observers ascribe the participants into their
  opinion groups themselves. (Gilbert and Jones
  1986)
• What if we find out that there might be some kind
  of agenda explaining someones behaviours?
• Some dispositional factors have also been shown
  to impact FAE.
• When observers are informed that the opinion of a
  participant matches that of an authority figure
  who could control rewards or punishments in the
  participants future FAE diminishes. (Fein 2001)

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Gilbert and Malone (1995) have shown that FAE
involves a two step attribution process

• First - We observe behaviour and make an
  automatic and unconscious inference toward
  disposition
• Second - We make a controlled and conscious
  process inquiry into the situational factors that
  could explain the behaviour
• FAEs occur when we do not proceed to the second
  step.
• We are distracted by other tasks
• We believe that our first explanation based on
  dispositional inferences is a sufficient
  explanation

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Self-serving bias attributing our successes to
internal dispositional factors and blame failures
on external situational factors

• Johnson et al
• Aims to investigate the effect of performance
  improvements on the perceptions of teachers
  assessments of their abilities.
• Methods Participants were asked to teach
  students how to multiply by using a one-way
  intercom in two stages. The control group
  performed well in both phases, the first
  experimental group showed no improvement from the
  first to the second phase, the second group
  showed improvement. The participants were then
  asked to explain the improvement in the second
  phase
• Conclusions When there was no improvement in
  the student, the participants ascribed it to a
  lack of ability in the student, when there was
  improvement, the participants ascribed this to
  their abilities as teachers.

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Some exceptions to the SSB

• We are more likely to rely on SSB when we fail in
  domains in which we cannot improve but we are
  more likely to attribute failure to internal
  dispositions if there is something we can improve
  on in the future.
• Abrahamson (1989) found that people with
  depression often rely on an attributional style
  that links success to external and failure to
  internal factors
• Zuckerman (1979) meta-analysis of SSB studies
  show that the effect stems from a desire to
  maintain self-esteem
• Hiene (1999) found less desire to seek
  self-esteem reinforcing experiences in
  collectivist cultures and therefore found less
  SSBs occurring in that culture.
• Miller and Ross (1975) SSB has rational uses
  apart from self-esteem enhancement. Logically,
  effort changes with success. If increased effort
  does not increase performance then the conclusion
  must be the nature of the task, if increased
  effort yields increased results, then the success
  is attributable to the self.

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Social Identity Theory (Tajfel et al. 1979)

• Based on four interrelated concepts
• Social categorization
• Social identity
• Social comparison
• Positive distinctiveness

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Social Categorization

• Divides the environment into two groups
• Ingroup
• Outgroup
• This has the effect of category accentuation
  effect
• reducing perceived variability in the ingroup
• reducing perceived variability in the outgroup
• increasing perceived variability between the
  ingroup and the outgroup

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• Social Identity
• Our self-concepts formed by being members of
  various social groups based on intergroup
  behaviours rather than interpersonal ones. People
  can have several of these
• Where do student-teacher relationships fit in
  here?
• Social Comparison
• We continuously compare our ingroups to relevant
  outgroups to maintain positive social identities.
  
• Positive distinctiveness
• The need to show that your ingroup is superior to
  an outgroup

61
Explain these concepts as they are expressed in
the film The Breakfast Club
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These lead to intergroup behaviours with some
general characteristics

• 1) Ethnocentrism
• Positive behaviours by ingroup members attributed
  to dispositions
• Negative behaviours by ingroup members attributed
  to situational factors
• Positive behaviours of outgroup members
  attributed to situational factors
• Negative behaviours or outgroup members
  attributed to dispositions
• 2) In group favoritism
• 3) Intergroup differentiation - altered behaviour
  to emphasize group differences
• 4) Stereotypical Thinking ingroup members and
  outgroup members are perceived according to
  stereotypes
• 5) Conformity to ingroup norms acting according
  to defined behaviours

63
Minimal Group Paradigm Tajfel et al (1971)

• Aims To determine the effect of group
  membership on behaviours
• Method participants were divided into groups
  randomly but told that their group membership was
  based on personal taste in artists. They were
  then asked to assign points to other members of
  the study according to predetermined rules.
• Conclusions the participants exhibited strong
  SIT tendencies such as favoring members of their
  own group and assigning points in such a way as
  to enhance the difference between the groups
  rather than increase the benefit to their own
  group.
• Despite criticisms of demand characteristic
  validity issues these findings have proven
  consistent in real-life situations and when
  participant do not know they are being observed.
• Mummendey and Otten (1998) - The effect is more
  powerful when distributing rewards than when
  distributing punishments.
• Dobbs and Crano (2001) the effect is diminished
  when subjects must justify their reward
  strategies afterwards.

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Stereotypes

• Stereotypes widely held evaluative
  generalizations about a group of people.
• Assigns similar characteristics to all members of
  a group despite variability
• Has all the properties of schemas
• Based on defining characteristics gender, age,
  race, etc.
• Are persistent across cultures

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Formation of stereotypes

• Four theories of the structure and function of
  stereotypes
• Social-cognitive theories
• SIT
• Systems-justification theory
• Social representation theory

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Stereotype formation social cognitive theories

• Limited capacities for cognitive processing
• Complex world increasing complexity
• Social categorization simplifies cognitive
  processing
• Social categorization stereotypes
• Energy-saving devices
• Automatically activated
• Stable and resistant to change
• Affect behaviour

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Stereotype Formation Social Identity Theory

• Stereotypes based on category accentuation
  effect and positive distinctiveness.
• Sherman et al (2009) we pay more attention to
  those ingroup and outgroup members that maximize
  positive distinctiveness.
• Ethnocentrism leads biased attributions to
  behaviours of ingroup and outgroup members.

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Stereotypes Systems justification theory

• Jost and Banaji (1994) stereotypes are used to
  justify social and power relations in society.
  eg. rich vs. poor
• SIT and social-cognitive approaches to
  stereotyping cannot explain negative
  self-stereotyping internalization of negative
  stereotype attributes in disadvantaged groups

69
Stereotypes Social-representations theory

• Moscovici (1984) Stereotypes emerge from group
  beliefs shared by a society rather than by
  individual schema activation.
• Both SJT and SRT emphasize negative perceptions
  stereotypes have been shown to be predominantly
  negative (Fiske and Taylor 2008)

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Stereotypes and performance

• Stereotype threat effect performance impairment
  that results when individuals asked to carry out
  a task are made aware of a negative stereotype
  held against them regarding their groups ability
  to perform that task well.
• Spencer et al (1999) informing females that
  they perform statistically worse than men on math
  tasks prior to taking a math test lowered their
  scores
• Steele and Aronson (1995) performance of
  African-Americans on verbal skills tasks was
  lower when they were asked to indicate their race
  prior to beginning.

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Origins of Personality

• Although people have a limited number of
  biological needs (10 15) they can be socialized
  to have an unlimited number of social needs.
• The strength of each need varies from person to
  person and becomes a crucial factor in defining
  identity and personality.

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Biological needs - hunger

• Early research into hunger showed a string
  correlation between stomach contractions and
  hunger researchers thought that hunger was
  caused by stomach contractions
• But patients who have had their stomachs removed
  for medical reasons continued to experience hunger

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3 causes of hunger

• Brain regulation
• Blood sugar levels
• Hormones

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Brain regulation

• The experience of hunger is controlled in the
  hypothalamus
• Lateral Hypothalamus turned hunger off
• Ventromedial Hypothalamus turned hunger on
• Paraventricular Hypothalamus works with both

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Glucose regulation

• Glucose a simple sugar that is an important
  source of energy
• Most of what we consume is converted into glucose
• Low blood sugar levels are associated with hunger
• High blood sugar levels are associated with
  satedness
• Glucostatic theory neurons sensitive to glucose
  in the surrounding fluid send signals to the
  brain to stop/start eating

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Digestive Regulation

• Vagus nerve sends signals to the brain when the
  stomach walls are stretched
• Other nerves carry signals that depend on how
  rich in nutrients the contents of the stomach are.

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Hormonal regulation

• Insulin hormone secreted in the pancreas. It
  must be present for cells to extract glucose from
  the blood.
• High insulin hunger
• Low insulin no hunger
• Leptin produced by fat cells throughout the
  body. Provides information to the hypothalamus
  about the bodys fat levels
• High leptin low hunger
• Low leptin high hunger

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What are the key environmental factors governing
eating?

• Learned preferences
• Food-related cues
• Stress

79
How does classical conditioning play a role in
eating?

• Preferences in taste are learned through
  associations created in classical conditioning.

80
If you force a child to eat, will they eventually
like it? Why or why not?

• Coercion tends to have a negative effect on
  preference for a food. They have learned an
  aversion to the food from the unpleasant
  association created when they were exposed to it.

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How does memory influence eating?

• A key component to hunger is our memory of the
  last time we ate. The appropriate duration
  between meals is learned through socialization.

82
What effect does the sight of food have?

• The sight and smell of food trigger hunger. This
  includes its appetizingness, the effort required
  to eat it, and its availability.

83
How are stress and eating related? Is this
relationship the same for men and women?

• The arousal related to stress, rather than stress
  itself, leads to more eating. This is common in
  women more than in men.

84
Define obesity.

• The condition of being overweight, more than 20
  above the ideal weight.
• What are the negative effects of obesity?
• Overweight people are susceptible to diabetes,
  high blood pressure, respiratory problems,
  stroke, arthritis, and back problems.

85
What has brought on obesity in modern times?

• Only recently have humans stopped eating wild
  foods and switched to domesticated, high sugar
  foods. Our bodies have not adapted to the new
  diet.

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How common is dieting?

• 24 of men and 40 of women diet

87
Can you be born to be fat? Explain. What have
scientists studied to answer this?

• Scientists have discovered through studying
  adopted children and twins raised in different
  families that people can be born with a
  vulnerability to obesity. Genetic factors account
  for 61 of the variation in weight of women and
  73 in men.

88
Define body set point. Can you change your bodys
set point?

• Set Point a natural point of stability in body
  weight. Long term excessive eating can raise the
  bodys set point but it is very difficult to
  lower it.

89
Achievement vs. Affiliation

• Achievement the need to master difficult
  challenges, to outperform others, and to meet
  high standards of excellence.
• This becomes more prominent in competitive
  situations and can be measures for entire
  societies through studying literature or movies.

90
The tendency to pursue achievement depends on the
following factors.

• The strength of the motivation to achieve.
• The estimate of the probability of success
• The incentive value of success.

91
Affiliation

• Affiliation the need to associate with others
  and maintain social bonds.
• Also included the fear of rejection, jealousy,
  and depression.

92
TAT Test

• Achievement and affiliation levels in people can
  be measured with a Thematic Apperception Test
  (TAT) in which subjects are shown stimuli with
  ambiguous meaning. They are then asked to
  construct a fictional narrative for the image.
  These narratives can be analyzed for their
  achievement or affliative content.

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Journal

• Observe the following image carefully. Construct
  a narrative (a story) that could explain the
  scene you are observing.
• Bring in your narrative and exchange it with a
  partner. Analyze each narrative for its
  affiliative or achievement motives.

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96
Emotions

• There are 3 elements to emotional experience
• 1. subjective conscious experience (cognitive)
• 2. bodily arousal (physiological)
• 3. characteristic overt expression (behavioral)

97
The cognitive component

• Emotions happen to us rather than something that
  we make happen
• Some degree of emotional control is possible
  (emotional intelligence)
• Peoples conscious appraisals of situations are
  key determinants of emotions evaluation of an
  emotion as good or bad

98
The physiological component

• The biological reaction to situations involves
  structures of the brain, neurotransmitters, and
  the endocrine system.
• Autonomic Nervous System regulates the activity
  of the glands, smooth muscles, and blood vessels.
  fight or flight response
• Galvanic Skin Response the change in electrical
  conductivity of the skin that occurs when the
  sweat glands of the skin increase their activity.

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Autonomic Responses

• Sympathetic
• Pupils dilated
• Dry mouth
• Goose bumps
• Sweaty palms
• Dilated lungs lungs
• Increased heart rate
• Adrenal activity
• Inhibited digestion

• Parasympathetic
• Pupils constrict
• Salivating mouth
• No goose bumps
• Dry palms
• Constricted lungs
• Decreased heart rate
• Decreased activity
• Stimulated digestion

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Brain Activity

• The emotional centers of the brain are the
• Hypothalamus
• Amygdala
• Limbic system
• The amygdala plays a central role in processing
  emotional stimuli

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The Amygdala

• The thalamus process emotional stimuli
  immediately and passes them on to the amygdala or
  the cortex.
• If the amygdala detects a threat then it triggers
  the hypothalamus to create an autonomic and
  endocrine response.

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The behavioral component

• Emotions are expressed in body language or
  nonverbal behavior.
• When evaluating photographs of facial
  expressions, subjects successfully identify 6
  emotions
• Happiness
• Disgust
• Sadness
• Fear
• Surprise
• Anger

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Facial responses

• Evidence suggests that facial muscles send
  signals to the brain that help the cortex
  interpret emotional stimuli
• Subjects asked to adopt a facial expression will
  report feeling that emotion
• Subjects who have been blind since birth still
  adopt facial expressions like everyone else.

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Theories of emotion

• James-Lange Theory the perception of arousal
  leads to the conscious experience of fear
  different patterns of autonomic activation lead
  to different emotions
• Cannon-Bard Theory emotion occurs when the
  thalamus sends signals directly to the cortex and
  the autonomic nervous system.
• Schachters Two-Factor Theory Emotion depends
  on two factors 1) autonomic arousal 2) cognitive
  interpretation of that arousal. You feel a
  certain way and search for reasons why.

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Emotions

• Darwin emotions developed because of their
  adaptive value. Emotions are innate reactions to
  specific stimuli. They are recognizable without
  thought.

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Innate emotional vocabulary

• Humans are born with 6 10 emotions that
  originate in the subcortical brain
• fear, anger, joy, disgust, interest, surprise.
• All other emotions are the result of
• 1) variations in intensity of emotions
• 2) blending of several different emotions.

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The Nature of Personality

• Personality is the consistent disposition to
  behave a certain way in a variety of situations.

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Personality can be described according to 5
Factors

• Agreeableness people who are sympathetic,
  trusting, cooperative, modest, and
  straightforward vs. People who are suspicious,
  antagonistic, and aggressive
• Openness to experience people who are curious,
  flexible, vivid fantasy, imaginative, artistic,
  and unconventional - a key determinant of
  political attitudes.
• Neuroticism people who are anxious, hostile,
  self- conscious, insecure and vulnerable. It is
  also called negative emotionality.
• Extraversion people who are outgoing, sociable,
  upbeat, friendly, assertive, and gregarious. Also
  called positive emotionality.
• Conscientiousness people who are diligent,
  disciplined, well-organized, punctual, and
  dependable. It is also called constraint and is
  associated with success and high productivity.

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Personality theory

• The 5 Factors can describe behaviour, but they
  dont account for its development and processes.
• There are 4 main groups of personality theories
• Psychodynamic theories
• Behavioural theories
• Humanistic theories
• Biological theories

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Psychodynamic Theory

• Based on the work of Sigmund Freud
• Psychodynamic theory explains motivation,
  personality, and disorders by focussing on the
  influence of early childhood experiences,
  unconscious motives and conflicts, and coping
  with sexual and aggressive urges.

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Freud proposed three components of personality
behaviour was the result of interactions between
these three parts.

• Id
• Ego
• Superego

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Id

• Id the primitive, instinctual component that
  operates according to the pleasure principle it
  demands immediate gratification of raw biological
  urges. Its thinking is primitive, illogical,
  irrational, and fantasy oriented.

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Ego

• Ego the decision-making component that operates
  according to the reality principle, which seeks
  to delay gratification of the ids urges until
  the socially acceptable moment can be found. Its
  thinking is rational, realistic, and problem
  solving.

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Superego

• Superego the moral component that incorporates
  social standards about right and wrong. It
  emerges from the ego at approx. 3 to 5 years old.

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Freud believed that there were 3 levels of
awareness

• the unconscious thoughts. Memories, and
  desires that are below the level of consciousness
  but exert a large effect on behaviour
• the preconscious - material just beneath the
  level of consciousness but that can be easily
  retrieved.
• the conscious everything one is aware of at any
  given moment.

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Anxiety

• Anxiety is caused by conflict between the 3
  components of personality. We deal with this
  anxiety with defense mechanisms unconscious
  reactions that protect a person from unpleasant
  emotions (eg. Anxiety or guilt)

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Defense Mechanisms

•  Repression keeping distressing thoughts and
  feelings buried in the unconscious.
• Projection Attributing ones own thoughts,
  feelings, or motives to someone else.
• Displacement Diverting emotional feelings from
  their original source to a substitute target.
• Reaction formation Behaving in a way that is
  exactly opposite of ones true feelings
• Regression A reversion to immature patterns of
  behaviour.
• Rationalization Creating false but plausible
  excuses to justify unacceptable behaviour.
• Identification Bolstering self-esteem by
  forming an imaginary or real alliance with some
  person or group.

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Behavioural Perspectives
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Albert Bandura

• Albert Bandura believed in much of Skinners
  ideas of conditioning but added environmental
  factors in a theory called reciprocal determinism
  the idea that internal mental events, external
  environmental events, and overt behaviour all
  influence one another.
• In essence, people can control their own
  conditioning.

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Observational Learning

• Observational learning occurs when an organisms
  responding is influenced by the observation of
  other models a person whose behaviour is
  observed by another (often people who are
  attractive or powerful).
• People are more likely to follow a models
  behaviour when they see it leads to positive
  outcomes.

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Humanistic Perspectives

• Humanism is a theoretical orientation that
  emphasizes the unique qualities of humans
  especially for their potential for growth and
  freedom
• The persons subjective view of the world is more
  important than objective reality

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Carl Rogers

• Carl Rogers believed in the construct of the
  self a collection of beliefs about ones own
  nature, unique qualities, and typical behaviour.
• People tend to distort their experiences to
  promote a favourable self-concept

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Incongruence

• Incongruence the gap between the self concept
  and actual experience
• Experiences that are conflicting with our self
  concept cause incongruence and are the primary
  source of anxiety.
• Individuals behave defensively to avoid anxiety
  and incongruence. They will ignore, deny, and
  distort reality to preserve or enhance their
  self-concept.

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Abraham Maslow

• Abraham Maslow Proposed that human motivation
  can be organized into a hierarchy of needs a
  systematic arrangement of needs according to
  priority in which basic needs must be met before
  less basic needs.
• The satisfaction of basic needs leads to the
  activation of needs at the next level up. Humans
  have an innate drive to achieve a higher state of
  being progression, and feel anxiety when lower
  needs are not being met regression.

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7 Levels of needs

• Physiological needs
• Safety and security needs
• Belongingness and love needs
• Esteem needs
• Cognitive needs
• Aesthetic needs
• Self-actualization

Progression
Regression
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Self-actualization

• Self-actualization the need to fulfill ones
  potential. Persons who achieve self-actualization
  have exceptionally healthy personalities, marked
  by continuous personal growth.

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Characteristics of self-actualized individuals

• Clear perception of reality and comfortable
  relations with it
• Spontaneity, simplicity, and naturalness
• Problem centering (having something outside
  themselves they must do as a mission)
• Detachment and need for privacy
• Continued freshness of appreciation
• Mystical and peak experiences
• Feelings of kinship and identification with the
  human race
• Strong friendships, but limited in number
• Democratic character
• Ethical discrimination between good and evil
• Philosophical, unhostile sense of humor
• Balance in polarities of personality