Organizational Behavior Chapter 2: The Individual-

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Organizational Behavior Chapter 2The
Individual-

• The Foundation of Individual Behavior

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Chapter Learning Objectives

• After studying this chapter you should be able
  to
• Explain the NINE different variables affecting
  Individual Behaviour
• Describe the THREE different Biographical
  characteristics
• Factors which comprise an Individual's Ability
• Discuss the THREE theories which explain the
  process of Learning
• Explain TWO types of Values

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Chapter Learning Objectives contd.

• After studying this chapter you should be able
  to
• Explain the THREE components of Attitudes
• Discuss the major Personality attributes
• Explain the application of Emotions in
  Organizational Behaviour
• Explain the meaning of Perception and
  Individual-decision making

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The Foundation of Individual Behavior

• The behavior of individual is affected by
  different variables explained below
• Biographical Characteristics
• Ability
• Learning
• Values
• Attitudes
• Personality
• Emotions
• Perception
• Perception and Individual Decision Making

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Biographical characteristics

• Biographical Characteristics This include data
  that can be obtained, simply from information
  available in an employee's personnel file such
  as an employee's

Age
Biographical Characteristics
Gender
Tenure
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Biographical characteristics

• Age
• Job performance and age Positive factors
  attributed are experience, judgement. Negative
  factors are lack of flexibility and resistance to
  new technology.
• Age-turnover Older workers are less likely to
  quit
• Age- absenteeism Older workers have lower rates
  of avoidable absences than younger employees

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Biographical characteristics

• Agecontd
• Age- productivity Research conclusions no
  impact on productivity
• Age-job satisfaction Positive association
  between age and satisfaction at least up to age 60

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Biographical characteristics

• Gender Women are actively participating in the
  workforce ,so there is no longer a misconception
  of their abilities as compared with men.
• Tenure Expressed as work experience.
• Positive relationship between seniority and job
  productivity
• Tenure and job satisfaction also positively
  related

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Ability

• Ability -An individuals capacity to perform the
  various tasks in a job. It is made up of 2
  factors
• Intellectual abilities are those needed to
  perform mental activities for thinking,
  reasoning, and problem solving.
• Physical abilities Needed in the jobs which
  demands stamina, manual dexterity, leg strength
  etc..

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Ability(Contd)

• The Ability-Job Fit Employee performance is
  enhanced when there is a high ability-job fit,
  i.e. the specific intellectual or physical
  abilities required for adequate job performance
• Example-
• Airline pilots need strong spatial-visualisation
  abilities

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Learning
Learning Any relatively permanent change in
behavior that occurs as a result of experience.

• Learning
• Involves change
• Is relatively permanent
• Is acquired through experience

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Learning

• Three theories have been offered to explain the
  process by which we acquire patterns of behavior.
  These are
• Classical conditioning,
• Operant conditioning, and
• Social learning.

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Theories of Learning
Classical Conditioning A type of conditioning in
which an individual responds to some stimulus
that would not ordinarily produce such a response.

• Key Concepts
• Unconditioned stimulus
• Unconditioned response
• Conditioned stimulus
• Conditioned response

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Classical conditioning key concepts

• The meat was an unconditioned stimulus it
  invariably caused the dog to react in a specific
  way.
• The reaction that took place whenever the
  unconditioned stimulus occurred was called the
  unconditioned response (or the noticeable
  increase in salivation, in this case).
• The bell was an artificial stimulus, or what we
  call the conditioned stimulus. Although it was
  originally neutral, after the bell was paired
  with the meat (an unconditioned stimulus), it
  eventually produced a response when presented
  alone.
• The last key concept is the conditioned response.
  This describes the behavior of the dog it
  salivated in reaction to the bell alone.

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Theories of Learning (contd.)

• Operant conditioning This theory argues that
  behaviour is a function of its consequences.
• People learn to behave to get something they want
  or to avoid something they dont want
• Skinner argued that creating pleasing
  consequences to follow specific norms of
  behaviour would increase the frequency of that
  behaviour. Behaviour that is not rewarded, or is
  punished, is less likely to be repeated.

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Theories of Learning (contd)
Social-Learning Theory People can learn through
observation and direct experience.

• Key Concepts
• Attentional processes
• Retention processes
• Motor reproduction processes
• Reinforcement processes

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Learning(contd)

• Social Learning contd Four processes have been
  found to determine the influence that a model
  will have on an individual.
• Attentional processes. We tend to be most
  influenced by models that are attractive,
  repeatedly available, important to us, or similar
  to us in our estimation.
• Retention processes. A model's influence will
  depend on how well the individual remembers the
  model's action after the model is no longer
  readily available.
• Motor reproduction processes. After a person has
  seen a new behavior by observing the model, the
  watching must be converted to doing.
• Reinforcement processes. Individuals will be
  motivated to exhibit the modeled behavior if
  positive incentives or rewards are provided.
  Behaviors that are positively reinforced will be
  given more attention, learned better, and
  performed more often.

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OB Applications of Learning

• Well Pay versus Sick leave
• Reduces absenteeism by rewarding attendance, not
  absence.
• Developing Training Programs
• improve training effectiveness.

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Values

• Values They contain a judgmental element in
  that they carry an individual's ideas as to what
  is right, good, or desirable. There are two sets
  of values,
• Terminal values, refers to desirable end-states.
  These are the goals that a person would like to
  achieve during his or her lifetime. e.g. (A
  comfortable life)
• Instrumental values, refers to preferable modes
  of behavior, or means of achieving the terminal
  values e.g. (Ambitious, Broad-minded, Capable)

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Attitudes
Cognitive componentThe opinion or belief segment
of an attitude.
Attitudes Evaluative statements or judgments
concerning objects, people, or events.
Affective ComponentThe emotional or feeling
segment of an attitude.
Behavioral ComponentAn intention to behave in a
certain way toward someone or something.
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OB applications of Attitudes

• Attitudes OB focuses on work related
  attitudes. Most of the research in OB has been
  concerned with three attitudesTypes of
  attitudes
• Job Satisfaction collection of feelings that an
  individual holds toward his or her job.
• Job Involvement degree to which a person
  identifies psychologically with his or her job
• Organizational/occupational Commitment employee
  identifies with a particular organization and its
  goals, and wishes to maintain membership in the
  organization.

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OB applications of Attitudes (contd.)

• Effect of Job satisfaction on employee
  performance
• Satisfaction and Productivity
• Worker productivity is higher in organizations
  with more satisfied workers.
• Satisfaction and Absenteeism
• Satisfied employees have fewer avoidable
  absences.

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What is Personality?
Personality The sum total of ways in which an
individual reacts and interacts with others.
Personality Traits Enduring characteristics that
describe an individuals behavior.

• Personality
• Determinants
• Heredity
• Environment
• Situation

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The Big Five Model of Personality Dimensions
ExtroversionSociable, gregarious, and assertive
AgreeablenessGood-natured, cooperative, and
trusting.
ConscientiousnessResponsible, dependable,
persistent, and organized.
Emotional StabilityCalm, self-confident, secure
(positive) versus nervous, depressed, and
insecure (negative).
Openness to ExperienceImaginativeness, artistic,
sensitivity, and intellectualism.
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Personality Attributes influencing OB

• Locus of control
• Self-esteem,
• Self-monitoring,
• Propensity for risk taking,
• Proactive personalities

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Personality Attributes influencing OB(contd)

• Locus of control A person's perception of the
  source of his or her fate.
• There are two classifications in this
• Internals People who believe that they are
  masters of their own fate.
• Externals People who believe that what happens
  to them is due to luck or chance.

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Personality Attributes influencing OB (contd.)

• Self-Esteem People differ in the degree to which
  they like or dislike themselves. This trait is
  called self-esteem.
• Self-monitoring A trait that measures an
  individuals ability to adjust his or her
  behaviour to external, situational factors.

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Personality Attributes influencing OB(contd)

• Propensity for risk taking People differ in
  their willingness to take chances
• Proactive personalities Proactive identify
  opportunities, show initiative, take action, and
  persevere until meaningful change occurs.

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Emotions

• Emotions are intense feelings that are directed
  at someone or something.
• Application of emotions in OB are as under
• Ability and Selection
• Decision Making
• Motivation
• Leadership
• Interpersonal Conflict
• Customer Service
• Deviant Workplace Behaviors

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OB Applications of Understanding Emotions

• Ability and Selection
• Emotions affect employee effectiveness.
• Decision Making
• Emotions are an important part of the
  decision-making process in organizations.
• Motivation
• Emotional commitment to work and high motivation
  are strongly linked.

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OB Applications of Understanding Emotions (contd)

• Interpersonal Conflict
• Conflict in the workplace and individual emotions
  are strongly intertwined.
• Customer Services
• Emotions affect service quality delivered to
  customers which, in turn, affects customer
  relationships.
• Deviant Workplace Behaviors
• Negative emotions lead to employee deviance
  (actions that violate norms and threaten the
  organization).

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Perception

• Perception a process by which individuals
  organize and interpret their sensory impressions
  in order to give meaning to their environment.
• Frequently used shortcuts in Judging others
• Halo effect Drawing a general impression about
  an individual on the basis of a single
  characteristic
• Projection Attributing ones own characteristics
  to other people
• Stereotyping Judging someone on the basis of
  ones perception of the group to which that
  person belongs.

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OB application of Perception

• Employment Interview
• Perceptual biases of raters affect the accuracy
  of interviewers judgments of applicants.
• Performance Expectations
• Self-fulfilling prophecy (pygmalion effect) The
  lower or higher performance of employees reflects
  preconceived leader expectations about employee
  capabilities.

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OB application of Perception (contd)

• Performance Evaluations
• Appraisals are often the subjective (judgmental)
  perceptions of appraisers of another employees
  job performance.
• Employee Effort
• Assessment of individual effort is a subjective
  judgment subject to perceptual distortion and
  bias.

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Decision Making

• Decision making occurs as a reaction to a
  problem.
• Problem A discrepancy between some current
  state of affairs and some desired state
• Decisions The choices made from among two or
  more alternatives

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The Link Between Perceptions and Individual
Decision Making
ProblemA perceived discrepancy between the
current state of affairs and a desired state.
Perception of the decision maker
DecisionsChoices made from among alternatives
developed from data perceived as relevant.
Outcomes
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Perception and Individual Decision Making

• What can managers do to improve their decision
  making
• First, analyse the situation Organisations
  differ in terms of the importance they place on
  risk, use of groups and the like.
• Second, be aware of biases try to minimise their
  impact example- anchoring bias
• Third, combine rational analysis with intuition
• Fourth, decision styles can be different for
  different jobs
• Finally, enhance creativitynew solutions to
  problem solving