MEMORY Chapter 9

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MEMORYChapter 9
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Gabby Hopeful Doc Wheezy Scaredy Sleepy Happy
Stubby Puffy Pop Dopey Bashful Sniffy Lazy Wish
ful Shorty Sloppy Droopy Teach
Grumpy Smiley Clumsy Bob Cheerful Jumpy Puf
fy Sneezy Shy
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Happy
Sneezy
Dopey
Doc
Bashful
Grumpy
Sleepy
two Ds, two Ss three Emotions Doc, Dopey,
Sleepy, Sneezy, Grumpy, Happy Bashful
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The Phenomenon of Memory

• Memory is any indication that learning has
  persisted over time. It is our ability to encode,
  store and retrieve information.

The Persistence of Memory Salvador Dalí, 1931
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Interesting Memory Phenomena

• Flashbulb (Episodic) Memory clear, strong,
  persistent memory usually caused by a
  unique/highly emotional moment.
• Not free from errors, however

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Interesting Memory Phenomena

• Eidetic (Photographic) Memory the research is
  mixed as to whether this is a real phenomenon or
  not

Daniel Tammet (Brain Man) - Synesthesia
Kim Peek the real Rain Man
http//abcnews.go.com/2020/video/brain-man-explain
s-synaesthesia-10765484
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Basic Tasks of Memory
Monitor (Retrieval)
Keyboard (Encoding)
Disk (Storage)
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Information Processing

• The Atkinson-Schiffrin three-stage model of
  memory includes a) sensory memory, b) short-term
  memory, and c) long-term memory.

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Atkinson-Shiffrin Three-Stage Processing Model

• Sensory memory has 2 parts
• Iconic store visual information
• Echoic store sound information
• Since we cannot focus all the sensory information
  in the environment, we select information that is
  important to us (through selective attention).

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Working Memory
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Encoding Getting Information In
How We Encode

1. Some information (route to your school) is
   automatically processed.
2. However, new or unusual information (friends new
   cell-phone number) requires attention and effort.

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Automatic/Parallel Processing
We process an enormous amount of information
effortlessly, such as the following

1. Space While reading a textbook, you
   automatically encode the place of a picture on a
   page.
2. Time We unintentionally note the events that
   take place in a day.
3. Frequency You effortlessly keep track of things
   that happen to you.

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Effortful/Serial Processing
Committing novel information to memory requires
effort just like learning a concept from a
textbook. Such processing leads to durable and
accessible memories.
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Rehearsal
Effortful learning usually requires rehearsal
(conscious repetition). Ebbinghaus studied
rehearsal by using nonsense syllables TUV YOF
GEK XOZ
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)
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Rehearsal
The more times the nonsense syllables were
practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions were
required to remember them on Day 2.
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Memory Effects

1. Next-in-line-Effect When you are so anxious
   about being next that you cannot remember what
   the person just before you in line says, but you
   can recall what other people around you say.
2. Spacing Effect We retain information better when
   we rehearse over time. This is why long-term
   studying is better than cramming!!!
3. Serial Position Effect When your recall is
   better for first and last items on a list, but
   poor for middle items.

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Spacing Effect

• Distributing rehearsal (spacing effect) is better
  than practicing all at once. Robert Frosts poem
  could be memorized with fair ease if spread over
  time.

ACQUAINTED WITH THE NIGHT Robert Frost I have
been one acquainted with the night.I have walked
out in rain and back in rain.I have outwalked
the furthest city light.
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Serial Position Effect
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Encoding Meaning
Whale
Q Did the word begin with a capital letter?
Structural Encoding
Shallow
Q Did the word rhyme with the word
weight?
Phonemic Encoding
Intermediate
Q Would the word fit in the sentence?
He met a __________ in the street.
Semantic Encoding
Deep
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Results
We tend to remember things better and easier when
we attach relevance and meaning of that
information to ourselves.
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Visual Encoding

• Mental pictures (imagery) are a powerful aid to
  effortful processing, especially when combined
  with semantic encoding.

Showing adverse effects of tanning and smoking
in a picture may be more powerful than simply
talking about it.
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Mnemonics

• Imagery is at the heart of many memory aids.
  Mnemonic techniques use vivid imagery in aiding
  memory.

Method of Loci using visual place cues (either
real or imagined) to help remember topics.
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Organizing Information for Encoding

• Break down complex information into broad
  concepts and further subdivide them into
  categories and subcategories.

1. Chunking
2. Hierarchy

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Chunking

• Organizing items into a familiar, manageable
  unit. Try to remember the numbers below.

1-7-7-6-1-4-9-2-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1
If you are well versed with American history,
chunk the numbers together and see if you can
recall them better. 1776 1492 1812 1941.
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Chunking
Acronyms are another way of chunking information
to remember it.
HOMES Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie,
Superior PEMDAS Parentheses, Exponent,
Multiply, Divide, Add, Subtract ROY G. BIV
Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet
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Hierarchy
Complex information broken down into broad
concepts and further subdivided into categories
and subcategories. (Which is why I took notes in
outline form when I was a student).
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Storage Retaining Information
Storage is at the heart of memory. Three stores
of memory are shown below
Sensory Memory
Working Memory
Long-term Memory
Encoding
Events
Retrieval
Encoding
Retrieval
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Sensory Memory
Sensory Memory
Working Memory
Long-term Memory
Encoding
Events
Retrieval
Encoding
Retrieval
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Sensory Memory
The exposure time for the stimulus is so
small that items cannot be rehearsed.
R G TF M QL Z S
The longer the delay, the greater the memory loss.
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Sensory Memories
The duration of sensory memory varies for the
different senses.
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Working Memory
Sensory Memory
Working Memory
Long-term Memory
Encoding
Events
Retrieval
Encoding
Retrieval
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Working Capacity
Working memory, the new name for short-term
memory, has a limited capacity (72) and a short
duration (20 seconds).
Ready?
M U T G I K T L R S Y P
You should be able to recall 72 letters.
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Chunking
The capacity of the working memory may be
increased by chunking.

• F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M

FBI TWA CIA IBM 4 chunks
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Long-Term Memory
Sensory Memory
Working Memory
Long-term Memory
Encoding
Events
Retrieval
Encoding
Retrieval
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Long-Term Memory

• Unlimited capacity store. Estimates on capacity
  range from 1000 billion to 1,000,000 billion bits
  of information

AP Psych Rocks!
WOW!
The Clarks nutcracker can locate 6,000 caches
of buried pine seeds during winter and spring.
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Memory Feats
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Memory Stores
Feature Sensory Memory Working Memory LTM
Encoding Echoic Chunking Semantic
Capacity 15 items 72 Chunks Unlimited
Duration 1/4 second 1 minute Years
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Stress Hormones Memory

• Heightened emotions (stress-related or otherwise)
  make for stronger memories of specific events.
  However, continued stress may disrupt memory
  (which is another reason why cramming the night
  before doesnt really work).

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Storing Implicit Explicit Memories

• Explicit Memory (declarative memory-conscious)
  refers to facts and experiences that one can
  consciously know and declare.
• Implicit memory (procedural memory-unconscious)
  involves learning an action while the individual
  does not know or declare what she knows.

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Hippocampus
Hippocampus a neural center in the
limbic system is the site of temporary
processing of explicit memories.
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Anterograde Amnesia
After losing his hippocampus in surgery, the
patient remembered everything before the
operation but cannot make new memories. We call
this anterograde amnesia.

• Anterograde
• Amnesia
• - old memory intact but loss of new memories

No New Memories
Memory Intact
Surgery
Retrograde Amnesia can form new memories but
loss of old memories occurs
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Cerebellum
Cerebellum a neural center in the hindbrain
that processes implicit memories.
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Retrieval Getting Information Out
Retrieval refers to getting information out of
the memory store.
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Measures of Memory
In recognition, the person must identify an item
amongst other choices (a multiple-choice test
requires recognition).

• Name the capital of France.
• Brussels
• Rome
• London
• Paris

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Measures of Memory
In recall, the person must retrieve information
using effort (a fill-in-the blank test requires
recall).

• The capital of
• France is ______.

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Measures of Memory
In relearning, the individual shows how much time
(or effort) is saved when learning material for
the second time.
List Jet Dagger Tree Kite Silk Frog Ring
List Jet Dagger Tree Kite Silk Frog Ring
Original Trials
Relearning Trials
1 day later
Saving
X 100
Relearning Trials
10
5
X 100
10
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It took 10 trials to learn this list
It took 5 trials to learn the list
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Retrieval Cues
Memories are held in storage by a web of
associations. These associations are like anchors
that help retrieve memory.
water
smell
hose
Fire Truck
fire
truck
smoke
heat
red
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Priming
To retrieve a specific memory from the web of
associations, you must first activate one of the
strands that leads to it. This process is called
priming (which is related to implicit memory).

1. __ h __ p __ __ __ k 3) __ o g __ y __ __ n
2. __ c __ __ __ us 4) __ l __ __ a t __

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Context Effects
Scuba divers recall more words underwater if they
learned the list underwater, while they recall
more words on land if they learned that list on
land (this is why Walton always offers the SAT).
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Context Effects

• After learning to move a mobile by kicking,
  infants most strongly respond when retested in
  the same context rather than in a different
  context.

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Déja Vu

• Déja Vu means I've experienced this before.
  Cues from the current situation may unconsciously
  trigger retrieval of an earlier similar
  experience.

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State-Dependent Memory

• The idea of state-dependent
• memory proposes that internal
• cues are also a factor in
• remembering (people remember
• better when their internal states
• matches when they
• learned/experienced the
• information).
• Mood-congruence
• Situations/feelings
• Chemically altered states of consciousness

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Daniel Schacters 7 Sins of Memory Failure

1. Absent-mindedness encoding failure by lack of
   attention to detail
2. Transience storage decay over time
3. Blocking cannot get to stored info
4. Misattribution confusing the source with
   something/someone else
5. Suggestibility misinformation causes
   misidenitification/false memories
6. Bias personal beliefs affect memories
7. Persistence haunted by unwanted memories

forgetting
distortion
intrusion
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Encoding Failure
We cannot remember what we do not encode.
Forgetting an inability to retrieve information
due to poor encoding, storage, or retrieval.
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Which penny is real?
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Storage Decay
Poor durability of stored memories leads to their
decay. Ebbinghaus showed this with his forgetting
curve.
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Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve

• Spanish

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Retrieval Failure

• Although the information is retained in the
  memory store, it cannot be accessed.

Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) is a retrieval failure
phenomenon. Given a cue (What makes blood cells
red?) the subject says the word begins with an H
(hemoglobin).
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Proactive (forget new) and Retroactive ( forget
new) Interference

• Learning some new information may disrupt
• retrieval of other information.

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Retroactive Interference
Sleep prevents retroactive interference.
Therefore, it leads to better recall.
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Motivated Forgetting

• Motivated Forgetting People unknowingly revise
  their memories.
• Repression A Freudian/psychodynamic defense
  mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing
  thoughts, feelings, and memories from
  consciousness.

Sigmund Freud
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Why do we forget?

• Forgetting can occur at any memory stage. We
  filter, alter, or lose much information during
  these stages.

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Memory Construction

• While tapping into our memories, we filter or
  fill in missing pieces of information to make our
  recall more coherent.

• Misinformation Effect Incorporating misleading
  information into one's memory of an event.
• Imagination Effect Repeated imaginations of
  things/events can create false memories

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Loftus Palmer MemoryHypothesis Methodology

• Hypothesis People will remember a car accident
  differently if given different language cues
  (words) about the accident
• Students watched a film of two cars colliding
• Collision was moderate with no broken glass
• Asked questions about speed

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Loftus Palmer Results
VERB MEAN ESTIMATE OF SPEED (MPH)
Smashed 40.8
Collided 39.3
Bumped 38.1
Hit 34.0
Contacted 31.8

• People reported the fastest speeds if the
  researchers had used the word smashed in the
  question

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Loftus Palmer Results Implications

• One week later, subjects were asked if they had
  seen broken glass
• 32 of subjects asked the smashed question said
  yes 14 of subjects asked the hit question
  said yes
• People remember things differently depending on
  the language used to describe an event (smashed
  versus hit)
• This demonstrates the Misinformation effect

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False Memories

• Source Amnesia (a.k.a. source misattribution).
  Attributing an event to the wrong source that we
  experienced, heard, read, or imagined.
• Repressed or Constructed?
• Some adults actually do forget childhood episodes
  of abuse.
• False Memory Syndrome
• A condition in which a persons identity and
  relationships center around a false but strongly
  believed memory of a traumatic experience, which
  is sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists.
• http//www.msnbc.msn.com/id/39166049/ns/us_newsthe
  _new_york_times/?GT143001

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Memories of Abuse

• Are memories of abuse repressed or
  constructed?
• Many psychotherapists believe that early
  childhood sexual abuse results in repressed
  memories.
• However, other psychologists question such
  beliefs and think that such memories may
  sometimes be constructed (power of suggestion).

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Types of Neurobiological Disorders that can lead
to Memory Distortion

• Anterograde Amnesia old information remembered
  but new memory formation not possible (lose new
  memory)
• Retrograde Amnesia can form new memories but
  loss of old memories occurs (lose old memory)
• Infantile Amnesia lack of many but not all
  memories before the age of 3 or 4 (and is
  completely normal)
• Alzheimers Disease

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Improving Memory

• Study repeatedly to boost long-term recall.
• Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking
  about the material.
• Make material personally meaningful.
• Use mnemonic devices
• Activate retrieval cues mentally recreate the
  situation and mood.
• Recall events while they are fresh before you
  encounter misinformation.
• Minimize interference
• Test your own knowledge.
• Rehearse and then determine
• what you do not yet know.