Chapter Two

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Ch 6 Observing Behavior
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Places to Observe on Campus (Spring 2010)

• 1. Area in the middle of campus, by the Info
  Trolley.
• 2. By the food place on campus which is near the
  gym/pools.
• 3. By the statue of the boy overlooking the
  water feature.
• 4. Entrance of the SE parking structure (people
  exiting structure)
• 5. Entrance of the SE parking structure (people
  entering structure)
• 6. Entrance of the SW parking structure (people
  exiting structure)
• 7. Entrance of the SW parking structure (people
  entering structure)
• 8. By the entrance of the bookstore.
• 9 In front of C Building, by mirror pools
• 10. Shuttle stop by U Building
• 11. Bus stop on Colorado in front of library
• 12. Passenger drop off/pick up (Colorado B. in
  front of L Bldg)
• 13. Starbucks

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Reactivity

• Occurs when individuals change their usual
  behavior, when they know they are being observed
  p101
• Minimize reactivity by
• Allowing time for individuals to become used to
  the presence of an observer or the recording
  equipment

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Sampling Behavior p116

• Time sampling Researchers choose time intervals
  for making observations
• Systematic Schedule observations to occur at a
  regular time
• Random Use some random means for identifying
  times for observations
• Event sampling is used for rare events
• Situation sampling Researchers choose different
  settings, circumstances, and conditions for their
  observations

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Classification of Observational Methods

• Two categories of observational methods
• Observation without Intervention
• Observation with Intervention

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Observation without Intervention

• Naturalistic Observation (AKA field work or
  field observations) Observation in natural
  (real-world) settings without an attempt to
  intervene or change the situation p110

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Participant observation

• Observer is an active participant in the natural
  setting he or she observes p112-113
• Norah Vincent
• My Life as a Man

• Undisguised (unconcealed) people in the setting
  know they are being observed
• Disguised (concealed) people dont know they are
  being observed

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Observation withoutIntervention

• Physical traces The remnants, fragments, and
  products of past behavior
• Products Creations, constructions, or other
  artifacts of earlier behavior

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Observation without Intervention

• Physical traces Evidence that remains from the
  use or nonuse of an item
• natural-use traces
• controlled use traces

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Natural-use traces

• Produced without any intervention by the
  investigator

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Controlled-use traces

• Produced with some degree of intervention or
  manipulation by the investigator

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Natural use or controlled use trace?
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Natural use or controlled use trace?
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Natural use or controlled use trace?
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Archival records

• Public and private documents that describe the
  activities of individuals, institutions,
  governments, and other groups p204

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Archival Research 118-121

• A non-reactive measure (or indirect method) for
  collecting datawhen the individual who did the
  behavior is no longer present
• Archival research involves using previously
  compiled information to answer research questions

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Running records records of specific events

• Running records are continuously kept and updated
  (e.g., check book)

• Records of specific events (e.g., diploma)

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Archival data are used to

• test hypotheses as part of a multimethod approach
• test the external validity of laboratory findings
• test hypotheses about past behavior
• assess the effect of a natural treatment

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Multimethod approach

• Researchers use a variety of measures to examine
  a research question

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Natural treatments

• Naturally occurring events that impact society
  and individuals

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Selective deposit

• Occurs when some information is selected to be
  included in the archival record, but other
  information is not

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Selective survival

• Occurs when information is lost or missing from
  an archival source

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Content analysis

• The process of making inferences based on
  objective coding of archival data p120

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Quantitative analysis

• Classifying events and behaviors into categories
  to count their frequency of occurrence p109
• Assign numerical values to responses and measures
  and then subject the data to quantitative
  statistical analyses

• Ex Count the number of times gender-stereotypica
  l jobs were assigned to characters in the story.

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Qualitative analysis

• Subjective judgments about the content in an
  archival record p109
• Describe behavior or findings based
• on themes that emerge from the data.
• Data are nonnumerical and expressed
• in language and images

• Ex Watch the tape of Osama Bin Laden and tell
  me if you think he is being deceptive.

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Three Steps of Content Analysis

1. Identify a relevant source
2. Sample selections from the source
3. Code units of analysis

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Observation with Intervention p114

• Systematic observation The careful observation
  of one or more behaviors in a particular setting.
  Use when
• interest is in only a few very specific behaviors
• observations are quantifiable
• researcher has developed prior hypothesis

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Field experiment

• Researcher manipulates an independent variable in
  a natural setting and observes behavior
  (dependent variable) pp 83, 113

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Coding systems for systematic observation p115

• are either (1) developed to fit the needs of the
  particular study or (2) borrowed systems
  developed by others
• should be as simple as possible
• must allow researchers to easily categorize
  behaviors

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Coding systems can involve

• Comprehensive records of peoples behavior (e.g.,
  complete records, such as video tapes)a
  qualitative record
• Selecting specific behaviors to recorda
  quantitative record pp115-116

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Equipment Narrative Records

• Used when researchers want a complete
  (comprehensive) reproduction of peoples behavior
  pp 115-116
• Examples video and audio recordings, field notes

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Systematic Observation Methodological Issues
pp115-116

1. Equipment can fail
2. Reactivity the probability that the presence of
   the observer will affect behavior
3. Reliability refers to how stable/consistent the
   measure is over time or between observers
4. Sampling refers to how participants and
   behaviors are chosen to be studied
5. Larger samples of participants and multiple
   samples of behavior can increase both internal
   and external validity.

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Case Studies pp117-118

• A case study provides a description of an
  individual.
• Usually the individual is a person, but may
  also be a setting.
• A psychobiography is a type of case study in
  which a researcher applies psychological theory
  to explain the life of an individual.

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Case Studies

• are done when an individual possesses a
  particularly rare, unusual, or noteworthy
  condition.
• provide unique data about some psychological
  phenomenon
• and the insights gained from them may lead to
  other research using other methods