Cardiovascular

1
Chapter 6

• Cardiovascular
• System Blood

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Points to Ponder

• What type of tissue is blood and what are its
  components?
• What is found in plasma?
• Name the 3 formed elements in blood and their
  functions.
• How does the structure of red blood cells relate
  to their function?
• Describe the structure and function of each white
  blood cell.
• What are disorders of red blood cells, white
  blood cells and platelets?
• What do you need to know before donating blood?
• What are antigens, antibodies and blood
  transfusions?
• How are ABO blood types determined?
• What blood types are compatible for blood
  transfusions?
• What is the Rh factor and how is this important
  to pregnancy?
• How does the cardiovascular system interact with
  other systems to maintain homeostasis?

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Functions of Blood
6.1 Blood An overview

• Transportation
• - Oxygen (from lungs), nutrients (from
  digestion), wastes (from tissue fluid), carbon
  dioxide (from tissue fluid) and hormones
  (influence cellular metabolism)
• Defense
• against invasion by pathogens
• Some cells phagocytize and destroy pathogens
• Others secrete antibodies into the blood
• Antibodies incapacitate pathogens so they can be
  destroyed
• Regulatory functions
• body temperature ? pick up heat from active
  muscle and transport around or out of the body
• water-salt balance and body pH (blood contains
  buffers)

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Composition of Blood
6.1 Blood An overview

• Remember blood is a fluid connective tissue
• Formed elements Cells and cell fragments
• produced in red bone marrow via stem cell
  differentiation
• Cells and cell fragments
• Red blood cells/erythrocytes (RBC)
• White blood cells/leukocytes (WBC)
• Platelets
• Plasma liquid medium
• suspends the formed elements, carries substances,
  distributes the heat generated by metabolism and
  muscle contractions
• 91 water and 9 salts and organic molecules
• Salts act as buffer to help maintain the pH of
  the blood
• Organic molecules glucose and amino acids for
  the cells
• Plasma proteins are the most abundant molecules

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3 major types of plasma proteins
6.1 Blood An overview

• Produced by the Liver
• Functions
• 1. Maintain homeostasis
• take up and release hydrogen ions
• 2. Establish osmotic pressure between blood and
  tissue fluid
• Force that prevents excessive loss of plasma from
  the capillaries into tissue fluid
• Albumins most abundant
• Function plasmas osmotic pressure and
  transportation
• Globulins
• Function transportation of hormones,
  cholesterol, and iron
• Fibrinogen
• Function formation of blood clots

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Formed Elements
6.1 Blood An overview
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Structure and Function of Red Blood Cells
6.2 Blood Red blood cells and transport of oxygen

• Lack a nucleus ? Biconcave shape increases
  surface area
• Lack most organelles ? including mitochondria
• ATP produced anaerobically so they dont consume
  any oxygen that they transport
• Contain about 280 million hemoglobin molecules
  that bind 4 molecules of O2 each
• Globin 4 tertiary polypeptides
• Heme iron-containing group ?Iron combines
  reversible with oxygen

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How is carbon dioxide transported?
6.2 Blood Red blood cells and transport of oxygen

• 68 as bicarbonate ions in the plasma
• this conversion of CO2 takes place in RBCs by
  carbonic anhydrase
• H binds to amino acids of the globin to assist
  in keeping the pH of the blood constant
• At lungs carbonic anhydrase in RBCs reverse this
  reaction to expel CO2 from the blood
• 25 bound to hemoglobin in red blood cells
• 7 as carbon dioxide dissolved in the plasma

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Production of red blood cells

• Produced in red bone marrow
• Lifespan 120 days
• Erythropoietin (EPO)
• Excreted by kidney cells
• Moves to red marrow when oxygen levels are low
• Stimulates the stem cells to produce more RBCs
• Old cells are destroyed by the liver and spleen
• Hemoglobin
• Globin broken down into amino acids and recycled
• Iron is recovered and reused
• Heme undergoes chemical degradation and is
  excreted

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What is blood doping?
6.2 Blood Red blood cells and transport of oxygen

• Any method of increasing the number of RBCs to
  increase athletic performance
• It allows more efficient delivery of oxygen and
  reducing fatigue
• EPO is injected into a person months prior to an
  athletic event
• Is thought to be able to cause death due to
  thickening of blood that leads to a heart attack

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What disorders involve RBCs?
6.2 Blood Red blood cells and transport of oxygen

• Anemia
• a condition resulting from too few RBCs or
  hemoglobin that causes a run-down feeling
• Maybe due to decrease levels of iron, vitamins
  B12 and B vitamin folic acid
• Sickle-cell anemia
• genetic disease that causes RBCs to be sickle
  shaped
• tend to rupture as they pass through the narrow
  capillaries
• Hemolytic disease of the newborn
• condition with incompatible blood types
• leads to rupturing of blood cells in a baby
  before and continuing after birth

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White blood cells (leukocytes)
6.3 White blood cells and defense against disease

• Derived from red bone marrow
• Large blood cells that have a nucleus
• Production is regulated by colony-stimulating
  factor (CSF)
• Can be found in the blood and tissues
• Fight infection and part of immune system
• Phagocytosis
• engulf pathogen and fuses with lysosome where
  enzymes digest the pathogen to debris that leaves
  the cell
• Antibodies
• proteins that combine with antigens and mark them
  for destruction
• Some live days and others live months or years

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Movement of WBCs out of circulation
6.3 White blood cells and defense against disease
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How are white blood cells categorized?
6.3 White blood cells and defense against disease

• Granular contain noticeable granules, lobed
  nuclei
• Eosinophil
• Basophil
• Neutrophil
• Agranular no granules, nonlobed nuclei
• Lymphocyte
• Monocyte

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Neutrophils
6.3 White blood cells and defense against disease

• About 50-70 of all WBCs
• Contain a multi-lobed nucleus
• Upon infection they move out of circulation into
  tissues to use phagocytosis to engulf pathogens
• Large numbers result in pus

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Eosinophils
6.3 White blood cells and defense against disease

• Small percentage of WBCs
• Contain a bilobed nucleus
• Many large granules
• function in parasitic infections and play a role
  in allergies

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Basophil
6.3 White blood cells and defense against disease

• Small percentage of WBCs
• Contain a U-shaped or lobed nucleus
• Release histamine related to allergic reactions
• Dilate blood vessels and constricts the air tubes
  that lead to lungs

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Lymphocyte
6.3 White blood cells and defense against disease

• About 25-35 of all WBCs
• Large nucleus that takes up most of the cytoplasm
• Develop into B and T cells that are important in
  the immune system
• B-cells protect us by producing antibodies that
  mark pathogens for destruction
• T-cells directly destroy pathogens

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Monocyte
6.3 White blood cells and defense against disease

• Relatively uncommon WBCs
• Largest WBC with horseshoe-shaped nucleus
• Take residence in tissues and develop into
  macrophages
• Macrophages use phagocytosis to engulf pathogens

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How do blood cell leave circulation?
6.3 White blood cells and defense against disease
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What disorders involve WBCs?
6.3 White blood cells and defense against disease

• Severe combined immunodeficiency disease (SCID)
• an inherited disease in which stem cells of WBCs
  lack an enzyme that allows them to fight any
  infection
• Leukemia
• a groups of cancers that affect white blood
  cells in which cells proliferate without control
• Infectious mononucleosis
• also known as the kissing disease occurs when
  the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infects lymphocytes
  resulting in fatigue, sore throat and swollen
  lymph nodes

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Platelets (thrombocytes)
6.4 Platelets and blood clotting

• Made of fragments of large cells called
  megakaryocytes made in the red bone marrow
• About 200 billion are made per day
• Function in blood clotting
• Blood proteins thrombin and fibrinogen (produced
  in the liver) are important for blood clotting by
  leading to fibrin threads that catch RBCs
• Thrombin acts as an enzyme that severs two
  short amino acid chains from each fibrinogen
  molecule
• Activated fragments join end to end, forming long
  threads of fibrin
• Fibrin threads wind around the platelets plug and
  provide framework for the clot
• Plasmin enzyme destroy fibrin network and
  restores the fluidity of plasma after repair is
  complete

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6.4 Platelets and blood clotting
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What disorders involve platelets?
6.4 Platelets and blood clotting

• Thrombocytopenia
• a disorder in which the number of platelets is
  too low due to not enough being made in the bone
  marrow or the increased breakdown outside the
  marrow
• Thromboembolism
• when a clot forms and breaks off from its site of
  origin and plugs another vessel
• Hemophilia
• a genetic disorder that results in a deficiency
  of a clotting factor so that when a person
  damages a blood vessel they are unable to
  properly clot their blood both internally and
  externally

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Health Focus What do you need to know about
donating blood?
6.4 Platelets and blood clotting

• Donating blood is a safe and sterile procedure
• You will donate about a pint of blood
• You will replace the plasma in a few hours and
  the cells in a few weeks
• A few people may feel dizzy afterwards so sit
  down, eat a snack and drink some water
• Your blood will at least be tested for syphilis,
  HIV antibodies and hepatitis and if any of them
  come back positive you will be notified
• Your blood can help save many lives
• You should not give blood if
• You have ever had hepatitis, malaria or been
  treated for syphilis or gonorrhea within 12
  months
• If you risk for having HIV or have AIDS

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Terminology for ABO blood typing
6.5 Blood typing and transfusions

• Antigen - a foreign substance, often a
  polysaccharide or a protein, that stimulates an
  immune response
• Antibody proteins made in response to an
  antigen in the body and bind to that antigen
• Blood transfusion transfer of blood from one
  individual into another individual
• Involves determining the
• ABO blood group
• Rh- or Rh

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The A, B, AB or O blood type
6.5 Blood typing and transfusions

• Presence and/or absence of 2 blood antigens, A
  and B
• Type of antibodies present
• Antibodies are only present for those antigen
  lacking on the cells because these proteins
  recognize and bind the protein they are named
  after

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How can you remember what each blood type means?
6.5 Blood typing and transfusions

• Blood types are named after the protein antigens
  that are present on the surface of their cell,
  except type O that entirely lacks A and B
  proteins
• Blood types only have antibodies to antigens they
  do not have on the surface of their cells
• For example Type A blood
• Have A proteins on its surface
• Has B antibodies
• What can you say about someone with type AB
  blood?

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6.5 Blood typing and transfusions
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How can you determine if blood types are
compatible for a blood transfusion?
6.5 Blood typing and transfusions

• Consider the antigens found on the blood
  transfusion recipient
• 2. Consider the antibodies found in the donor
  blood
• If the antibodies in the donor blood can
  recognize the antigen on the recipients blood
  then the blood will agglutinate (clump) and cause
  rejection

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Testing your understanding
6.5 Blood typing and transfusions

• Can a person with blood type O accept blood type
  A without agglutination occurring? Why or why
  not?
• Why can people with AB blood type accept more
  blood types than people with type O, A or B?
• Which blood type is able to be used most often as
  a donor blood type? Why?

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What about Rh blood groups?
6.5 Blood typing and transfusions

• The Rh factor is often included when expressing a
  blood type by naming it positive or negative
• People with the Rh factor are positive and those
  without it are negative
• Rh antibodies only develop in a person when they
  are exposed to the Rh factor from anothers blood
  (usually a fetus)

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When is the Rh factor important?
6.5 Blood typing and transfusions

• During pregnancy under these conditions
• Mom Rh-
• Dad Rh
• Fetus Rh (possible with the parents above)
• In this case above some Rh blood can leak from
  the fetus to the mother during birth causing the
  mother to make Rh antibodies
• This can be a problem if the mother has a second
  fetus that is Rh because she now has antibodies
  that can leak across the placenta and attack the
  fetus
• This condition is known as hemolytic disease of
  the newborn that can lead to retardation and even
  death

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Visualizing how hemolytic disease of the newborn
happens?
6.5 Blood typing and transfusions
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How can hemolytic disease of the newborn be
prevented?
6.5 Blood typing and transfusions

• Rh- women are given an injection of anti-Rh
  antibodies no later than 72 hours after birth to
  an Rh baby
• These antibodies attack fetal red blood cells in
  the mother before the mothers immune system can
  make antibodies
• This will have to be repeated if an Rh- mother
  has another Rh baby in case she has later
  pregnancies

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Heart, blood vessels and blood work with other
systems to maintain homeostasis
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