Sentence Patterns and Parts of Speech

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Sentence Patterns and Parts of Speech

• Zhong Caishun
• 13699529035
• hokmdj_at_163.com

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What shall we start in grammar study?
Sentence
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• What elements do English sentences contain?
• What are the basic patterns of English sentences?
  
• How can we identify them?

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What is sentence?

• a group of words, usually containing a verb,
  which expresses a thought in the form of a
  statement, question, instruction or exclamation
  and starts with a capital letter when written.
• A sentence is a group of words which, when they
  are written down, begin with a capital letter and
  end with a full stop, question mark, or
  exclamation mark. Most sentences contain a
  subject and a verb.

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Regular and irregular sentences

• Mary sneezed
• Hello! Yes No So long! Thanks! Cheers!
• Pam hates it when Lee calls her at work.

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Clause

• a group of words, consisting of a subject and a
  finite form of a verb ( the form that shows the
  tense and subject of the verb), which might or
  might not be a sentence

sentence
clause
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Clause elements and structures

• How can we identify clause elements?
• The evenings have turned very cold just recently.

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Classification chain and choice relationship

• Distinctions between the elements-and between
  types within the elements - are based on
• (i) forms (noun phrase, verb phrase, adjective
  phrase, finite clause, etc),
• (ii) position,
• (iii) syntactic function other than positional
  potentialities, and
• (iv) semantic role

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Basic clause patterns

• Someone was laughing loudly in the next room.
• My mother usually enjoys parties very much.
• In 1945 the country became totally independent.
• I have been in the garden all the time since
  lunch.
• Mary gave the visitor a glass of milk.
• Most people consider these books rather
  expensive, actually.
• You must put all the toys upstairs immediately

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• Someone S was laughing V loudly A in the
  next room A.
• My mother S usually A enjoys V parties 0
  very much A.
• In 1945 A the country S became V totally
  independent C.
• I S have been V in the garden A all the
  time A since lunch A.
• Mary S gave V the visitor 0 a glass of milk
  O.
• Most people S consider V these books 0
  rather expensive C, actually A.
• You S must put V all the toys O upstairs
  A immediately A

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(No Transcript)
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Immediate constituency Immediate constituency subject verb verb verb object Compliment adverbial
Immediate constituency Immediate constituency subject transitive intransitive link object Compliment adverbial
clause clause  
phrase phrase The evenings have turned have turned have turned very cold just recently
word Noun The, evenings Have, turned Have, turned Have, turned   Very, cold Just, recently
word Verb The, evenings Have, turned Have, turned Have, turned   Very, cold Just, recently
word Adjective The, evenings Have, turned Have, turned Have, turned   Very, cold Just, recently
word Adverb The, evenings Have, turned Have, turned Have, turned   Very, cold Just, recently
word determiner The, evenings Have, turned Have, turned Have, turned   Very, cold Just, recently
word preposition The, evenings Have, turned Have, turned Have, turned   Very, cold Just, recently
word pronoun The, evenings Have, turned Have, turned Have, turned   Very, cold Just, recently
word conjunction The, evenings Have, turned Have, turned Have, turned   Very, cold Just, recently
word interjection The, evenings Have, turned Have, turned Have, turned   Very, cold Just, recently
morpheme morpheme The, evening, -s Have, turn, -ed Have, turn, -ed Have, turn, -ed   Very, cold Just, recent, -ly
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Subjects

• (a) FORM
• The subject is normally a noun phrase or a
  pronoun. But other linguistic categories can also
  be seen
• Gerund
• Studying hard always makes me sleepy.
• Infinitive
• To go without you wouldnt be any fun.
• Clause
• What he said wasnt very polite.
• (b) POSITION
• The subject normally occurs before the verb in
  declarative clauses, and after the operator in
  yes-no interrogative clauses

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(c) Syntactic function

• The subject normally comes before the verb in
  declaratives, but in questions it comes after the
  operator
• 1 They (S) accepted (V) full
  responsibility.
• 1a Did (op) they (S) accept (V) full
  responsibility?
• The subject comes before the verb even in
  questions if who or what or an interrogative
  phrase such as which person is the subject
• 1b Who (S) accepted (V) full
  responsibility?
• The subject is normally absent in imperatives
• Help (V) me with the luggage.
• Some pronouns (words like I, you, she, he, they)
  have a distinctive form when they function as
  subject of the sentence or of clauses in the
  sentence
• She (S) knows me well.
• I (S) know her well, and they (S) know her
  well too.
• The subject determines the form of reflexive
  pronouns (those ending in -self such as
  herself, ourselves, themselves) that appear in
  the same clause
• I (S) hurt myself badly.
• The child cried when he (S) hurt himself
  badly.
• You (S) can look at yourself in the mirror.
• She (S) can look at herself in the mirror.
• When we turn an active sentence into a passive
  sentence we change the subjects
• Active The police (S) called the bomb-disposal
  squad.
• Passive The bomb-disposal squad (S) was called
  by the police.
• We can also omit the subject of the active
  sentence when we form the passive sentence, and
  indeed we generally do so

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SEMANTIC PROPERTIES

• (i) The subject is typically the theme (or topic)
  of the clause.
• (ii) It typically refers to information that is
  regarded by the speaker as given.
• (iii) In a clause that is not passive, the
  subject is agentive if the agentive role is
  expressed in the clause.

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Subject verb agreement

• Grammatical agreement can be defined as the
  relationship between two grammatical units such
  that one of them displays a particular feature
  (e.g. plurality) that accords with a displayed
  (or semantically implicit) feature in the other.
  The most important type of agreement in English
  is agreement of 3rd person number between subject
  and verb. The normally observed rule is very
  simple
• A singular subject requires a singular verb
• e.g. My daughter watches television after
  supper.
• A plural subject requires a plural verb
• e.g. My daughters watch television after
  supper.

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• When the subject is realized by a noun phrase,
  the phrase counts as singular if its head is
  singular
• e.g. The CHANGE in male attitudes is most obvious
  in industry.
• The CHANGES in male attitude are most
  obvious in industry.
• Finite and nonfinite clauses generally count as
  singular
• e.g. How you got there doesn't concern me.
• To treat them as hostages is criminal.
• Smoking cigarettes is dangerous to your
  health.
• Prepositional phrases and adverbs functioning as
  subject also count as singular
• e.g. In the evenings is best for me. Slowly does
  it!

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• An apparent exception for clauses is the nominal
  relative clause. Nominal relative clauses are on
  the continuum from clause to noun phrase. For the
  purpose of concord, their number depends on the
  interpretation of the number of the wh-element.
  With the determiners what and whatever, the
  concord depends on the number of the determined
  noun
• e.g. What were supposed to be new proposals were
  in fact modifications of earlier ones.
• What was once a palace is now a pile of
  rubble.
• Whatever book a Times reviewer praises
  sells well.
• What ideas he has are his wife's.
• The application of the general rule is restricted
  in several general respects
• Except for the verb BE, the verb shows a
  distinction of number only in the 3rd person
  present. Hence, the verb generally does not show
  concord in the past. The verb BE displays concord
  also in the 3rd person past
• My daughter was watching television in my
  bedroom.
• My daughters were watching television in my
  bedroom.
• Number concord is displayed only in the
  indicative. Nonfinite verbs, imperatives, and
  subjunctives make no number distinctions
• Modal auxiliaries make no number distinctions
• My daughter(s) may watch television after supper

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• GRAMMATICAL CONCORD
• NOTIONAL CONCORD
• Notional concord is agreement of verb with
  subject according to the notion of number rather
  than with the actual presence of the grammatical
  marker for that notion
• e.g. The government broken all
  promises.
• Fish and chips a popular
  supper here.

their
have
is
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• The choice between singular or plural verbs
  depends in BrE on whether the group is being
  considered as a single undivided body, or as a
  collection of individuals. Thus,, in BrE plural
  is more likely than singular, because attention
  is directed at the individual reactions of
  members of the audience.
• The audience were enjoying every minute of it.
• The audience were enjoying every minute of it.
• The public are tired of demonstrations.
• England have won the cup.
• Our Planning Committee have considered your
  request.
• On the other hand, the singular is more likely in
  these sentences
• The audience was enormous.
• The public consists of you and me.
• The crowd has been dispersed.
• It is generally safer in BrE to use the singular
  verb where there is doubt, in obedience to
  grammatical concord. AmE generally treats
  singular collective nouns as singular. Terms for
  the government and for sports teams are nearly
  always treated as singular in AmE, but other
  terms may (less commonly than in BrE) take plural
  verbs
• The administration has announced its plans for
  stimulating the economy.
• America has won the cup.
• The public has a right to know. also in AmE The
  public have a right to know

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• the principle of PROXIMITY
• The principle of proximity, also termed
  'attraction', denotes agreement of the verb with
  a closely preceding noun phrase in preference to
  agreement with the head of the noun phrase that
  functions as subject
• e.g. There a man and two women in
  the car.

is
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Some constructions where the principle of
proximity applies

• Not onlybut also
• Not only the students but also the teacher
  enjoying the film.
• Not but
• Not the child but the parents to blame.
• Neither nor
• Neither the students nor the teacher
  anything about it.
• Either or
• Either he or I right.
• Whether or
• Whether you or someone that you love
  dealing with an anxiety disorder, it can often
  feel as though your life has been brought to a
  halt

is
are
knows
am
is
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Interaction of three principles

• Interaction of the different principles occurs in
  the context where the subject contains (a) a
  collective noun head (b) coordination and (c)
  an indefinite expression.
• Ten dollars is all I have left. 'That amount is.
  . .'l
• Fifteen years represents a long period of his
  life
• More than a thousand inhabitants have signed the
  petition.
• More than one member has protested against the
  proposal.
• Many a member has protested against the proposal.
• One and a half years have passed since we last
  met.

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Coordinated subject

• Coordination comprises cases that correspond to
  fuller coordinate forms. A plural verb is used
  even if each conjoin is singular
• Tom and Alice are now ready
• A plural verb is similarly required in asyndetic
  coordination (without a coordinator)
• His camera, his radio, his money were confiscated
  by the customs officials.
• Conjoins expressing a mutual relationship, even
  though they can only indirectly be treated as
  reductions of clauses in this way, also take a
  plural verb
• Your problem and mine are similar. 'Your problem
  is similar to mine and mine is similar to
  yours.'
• What I say and do are two different things.
  'What I say is one thing and what I do is
  another thing.'
• If a singular noun phrase is followed by etc and
  similar abbreviatory expressions (and so on, and
  so forth), a plural verb is normal
• The size etc are less important for our purposes.
• Preposed each or every has a distributive effect
  and requires a singular verb
• Every adult and every child was holding a flag.
• Each senator and congressman was allocated two
  seats.

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• The principle of notional concord explains
• The hammer and sickle was flying from the
  flagpole.
• Danish bacon and eggs makes a good solid English
  breakfast.
• The Bat and Ball sells good beer.
• Despite the coordination, the subject names a
  single flag, a single meal, and a single pub
  respectively. Contrast
• Danish bacon and eggs sell very well in London.
• Arithmetical sums may be used with a singular or
  plural verb
• Two and two four.
• So also Ten times five is (or are) fifty Two
  fives make (or makes) ten. But Two fives are ten
  Ten minus two is eight Ten into fifty is five.

is are
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Coordination within a singular subject

• A singular noncount noun head may be premodified
  by phrases coordinated by and. As subject, the
  resulting noun phrase may imply two (or more)
  separate sentences, and may then be legitimately
  followed by a plural verb
• American and Dutch beer are (both) much lighter
  than British beer.
• White and brown sugar are (equally) acceptable
  for this recipe.
• But a singular verb is often used in this
  context, and is required when the phrases are
  postmodifying
• Beer from America and Holland is much lighter
  than British beer.
• When the subject is a nominal relative clause,
  coordination reduction allows some variation in
  number interpretation
• What I say and do are my own affair.
• What I say and do is my own affair.
• A generic noun phrase with a singular count head
  requires a plural verb when the head is
  premodified and the premodification contains
  coordination by and
• The short-term and (the) long-term loan are
  handled very differently by the bank.
• A first-language and (a) second-language learner
  share some strategies in their acquisition of the
  language.

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Coordinative apposition

• In coordinative apposition, each of the
  coordinated units has the same reference. Hence,
  a singular verb is required if each noun phrase
  is singular. .
• This temple of ugliness and memorial to victorian
  bad taste was erected in the main street of the
  city
• However, the following examples could either a
  singular or plural verb, depending on the
  meaning
• His aged servant and the subsequent editor of his
  collected papers was/were with him at his
  deathbed.
• Law and order has/have been established.

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Quasi-coordination

• Subject noun phrases may be linked by
  quasi-coordinators, i.e. prepositions (such as
  along with, rather than, and as well as) that are
  semantically similar to coordinators. Grammatical
  concord requires a singular verb if the first
  noun phrase is singular
• The captain, as well as the other players, was
  tired.
• One speaker after another was complaining about
  the lack of adequate sanitation.
• If an adverbial is attached to a second noun
  phrase linked to the first noun phrase by and,
  the construction is considered parenthetic, and
  grammatical concord similarly requires the verb
  to agree in number with the first noun phrase
• A writer, and sometimes an artist, is invited to
  address the society.
• The ambassador - and perhaps his wife too - is
  likely to be present.
• The same grammatical rule applies when the second
  phrase is negative, whether or not linked by and,
  though here the principle of notional concord
  reinforces the use of the singular
• The Prime Minister, (and) not the monarch,
  decides government policy.

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Coordination with or and nor

• The principle of proximity prevails in eitheror
  construction
• Either the Mayor or her deputy is bound to come.
• Either the strikers or the bosses have
  misunderstood the claim.
• Either your brakes or your eyesight is at fault.
• Either your eyesight or your brakes are at fault.
• When or is used for coordinative apposition,
  grammatical agreement requires the number of the
  verb to agree with the first appositive if the
  two appositives differ in number
• The hero, or main protagonist, is Major Coleman.
• The rules for the negative correlatives neither.
  . . nor are the same as for either. . . or in
  formal usage.
• Neither he nor his wife has arrived.
• The coordinating correlatives nor. . . but and
  nor only/just/merely. . . but (also/even) behave
  like or with respect to number concord
• Not only he but his wife has arrived.
• Not (only) one but all of us were invited.

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Indefinite expressions as subject

• No people of that name live here.
• Some/any/half/all has/have been taken away.
• None (of the books) have/has been placed on the
  shelf.
• The two guests have arrived, and either/but
  neither is welcome.
• Nobody, not even the teachers, is listening.
• These sort of parties are dangerous (informal)
• A (large) number of people have applied for the
  job.
• The majority are Moslems.

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Verbs transitive vs. intransitive vs. link

• If a main verb requires a direct object to
  complete the sentence, it is a transitive verb.
  The term transitive comes from the notion that
  a person (represented by the subject of the
  sentence) performs an action that affects some
  person or thing there is a transition of the
  action from the one to the other. Indeed, the
  object typically refers to a person or thing
  directly affected by the action described in the
  sentence
• Helen received my email.
• They ate all the strawberries.
• I dusted the bookshelves in my bedroom.
• Anthony stroked his beard.
• One way of identifying the direct object in a
  declarative sentence is by asking a question
  introduced by who or what followed by the
  operator and the subject. The object is the
  constituent that who or what questions
• Sandra recorded the adverse effects of the
  changes.
• What (dO) did (op) Sandra (S) record?
• The adverse effects of the changes

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• If a main verb does not require another element
  to complete it, the verb is intransitive
• Everyone is waiting, but he didnt care.
• She sighed and yawned.
• We walk to the park and then we run round it.
• Verbs with or without objects
• She was so sad she could not speak.
• Do you speak English?
• Some verbs are usually used without objects but
  can take cognate objects.
• Chris will sing a song for us.
• She lived a good life.
• They fought a clean fight.
• He breathed his last breath.
• He died a miserable death.

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SVA

• The structure SV is basic because we can always
  add optional elements to them. These optional
  elements are adverbials. Adverbials (A) convey a
  range of information about the situation depicted
  in the basic structure. In below, the adverbial
  noisily depicts the manner of the action, and the
  adverbial outside the White House indicates the
  place of the action
• The protestors were demonstrating noisily (A)
  outside the White House (A).
• As the above example indicates, a sentence may
  have more than one adverbial. Moreover, the
  position for adverbials is in many cases
  flexible.

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Objects

• FORM
• Like the subject, the object is normally noun
  phrase or a nominal clause.
• POSITION
• The object normally follows the subject and verb.
  If both objects are present, the indirect object
  normally comes before the direct object
• I gave him Oi my address Od.

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SYNTACTIC FUNCTION

• (i) The object function requires the objective
  form for pronouns that have distinctive case
  forms
• They amuse me.
• I amuse them.
• (ii) If an object is coreferential with the
  subject, it usually requires a reflexive pronoun
  which agrees with the subject in person and,
  where relevant, in number and gender. Similar
  agreement is required for an emphatic genitive
  (my own, etc) within the object
• You can please yourself.
• IS have given myself a treat.
• They type their own letters.
• (iii) The object of an active clause may
  generally become the subject of the corresponding
  passive clause
• We have finished the work. - The work has been
  finished.
• If both objects are present, it is often possible
  to make either the subject in a corresponding
  passive clause
• We sent Jack a copy of the letter.
• Jack was sent a copy of the letter. 1
• A copy of the letter was sent Jack Oil. 2
• But l is far more common than 2. Instead of
  the retained indirect object in 2, the
  prepositional paraphrase is more usual
• A copy of the letter was sent to Jack.

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• (iv) The indirect object generally corresponds to
  a prepositional phrase, which is generally placed
  after the direct object
• I'll send Charles another copy. - I'll send
  another copy to Charles.
• Pour me a drink. - Pour a drink for me.
• (v) The indirect object can generally be omitted
  without affecting the semantic relations between
  the other elements
• David saved me a seat. - David saved a seat.
  David saved me.

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SEMANTIC PROPERTIES

• (i) The direct object typically refers to an
  entity that is affected by the action denoted in
  the clause
• Norman smashed a window in his father's car.
• (ii) The indirect object typically refers to an
  animate being that is the recipient of the action.

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Ditransitive construction

• Indirect object following the verb
• I will send you a postcard.
• Indirect object following a preposition.
• I will send a postcard to you.
• ToOi is used for such ditransitive verbs as
  send, give, hand, bring, lend, offer, pass, post,
  read, sell, show, teach, tell, throw, write while
  for Oi fo buy, do, make, build, cook, cut, draw,
  fetch, find, get, keep, leave, order, pick, save.
• With verbs such as describe or explain, we put
  the indirect object after a preposition, not
  after the verb.
• He described the man to them.
• He explained the plan to us.
• Others include admit, announce, mention, murmur,
  report, shout, suggest, whisper
• With such verbs as cost, deny, forgive, grudge,
  refuse, fine, bet, etc. we must put the indirect
  object after verb.
• The mistake cost us a lot of money.
• Ask can also take two objects
• Can I ask you a favor?
• Shes never asked a favor of anybody.
• Clauses as Od
• I will remind him that you are here.
• (other verbs including assure, convince, inform,
  notify, persuade)
• He admitted to the police that he had stolen the
  money.
• (other verbs including boast, confess, declare,
  hint, propose reveal)

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• SVOO vs. SVOC
• She called him a fool.
• She called him a taxi.
• She called a fool to him.
• She called a taxi for him. ()

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Linking verbs and subject complement

• If a verb requires a subject complement (sC) to
  complete the sentence, the verb is a linking verb
  (also know as copulas or copular verbs). The
  subject complement (underlined in the examples
  that follow) typically identifies or
  characterizes the person or thing denoted by the
  subject
• 1 The show was splendid.
• 2 He seemed in a good mood.
• 3 Despite the scandal, he remained president.
• 4 The news sounds horrifying.
• The most common linking verb is be. Other common
  linking verbs (with examples of subject
  complements in parentheses) include
• appear, seem, (to be/adj/noun)
• feel, sound, taste, look, smell (adj/prep.noun)
• Become, get, go, turn, come, grow
• Keep, remain, stay (not used with to be)

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Grammatical Hierarchy Embedding
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Grammatical Hierarchysubordination
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Grammatical Hierarchy Coordination
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Simple, compound and complex sentences

• Simple
• The inquiry left in its wake a number of
  casualties.
• I was one of them.
• Compound
• The inquiry left in its wake a number of
  casualties, and I was one of them.
• Complex
• I didnt realize that Brian wasnt feeling well.

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• Exercise 3.1 Subject, predicate, verb (cf. 3.2)
• In each sentence below, underline the subject and
  circle the verb constituent.
• 1. Since September, the airline industry has
  suffered its greatest ever slump in business.
• 2. Analysts predict several years of diminished
  business.
• 3. Several thousand airline workers lost their
  jobs.
• 4. Normas parents met her English and Biology
  teachers at the Open Day.
• 5. Caroline submitted a poem about her dog to the
  school magazine.
• 6. Outside, the company sign seems modest.
• 7. Inside, the atmosphere is one of rush and
  ferment.
• 8. Opossums frequently appear to be dead.
• 9. Sometimes they merely pretend to be dead.
• Use each verb below to make up a sentence
  containing both a direct object and an
• indirect object.
• 1. pay 6. make
• 2. bring 7. cook
• 3. leave 8. spare
• 4. read 9. ask
• 5. find 10. charge
• Use each verb below to make up a sentence
  containing both a direct object and an object
  complement.

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• The sentences below are ambiguous. For each
  meaning, state the structure (the set of sentence
  elements) and give a paraphrase of the
  corresponding meaning. For example
• They are baking potatoes.
• S V SC They are potatoes for baking.
• S V dO They have put potatoes in the oven
  to bake.
• 1. You will make a good model.
• 2. Ill call you my secretary.
• 3. Your men are revolting.
• 4. They left him a wreck.
• 5. You should find me an honest worker.
• 6. She has appointed her assistant personnel
  manager.
• 7. She teaches the best.
• 8. He was subdued to some extent.
• 9. My solicitor gives the poorest free advice.
• 10. His hobby is making friends.

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• The sentences below are ambiguous. For each
  meaning, state the structure (the set of sentence
  elements) and give a paraphrase of the
  corresponding meaning. For example
• They are baking potatoes.
• S V SC They are potatoes for baking.
• S V dO They have put potatoes in the oven
  to bake.
• 1. You will make a good model.
• SVSC
• SVO
• 2. Ill call you my secretary.
• SVOOC
• SViOdO
• 3. Your men are revolting.
• SV
• SVC
• 4. They left him a wreck.
• SViOdO
• SVOOC
• 5. You should find me an honest worker.
• 6. She has appointed her assistant personnel
  manager.
• 7. She teaches the best.