Transmission II: How much of language is cultural, how much biological?

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Transmission II How much of language is
cultural, how much biological? In
particular Can non-human primates
learn language from humans?
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Where are we in the course?
We have just looked at how culture is linked to
biology in the area of growth and body size?
What is the role of cuisine and diet and (we
might add) life style in relationship to
phenotypic unfolding of the genotype? These
processes of transmission involve interaction
between biology and culture.
Now we want to look at studies of how much of
language (and culture) can be transmitted across
species. How much of the exaggerated prominence
of social learning in the human species is a
result of biological adaptation for such
learning, how much is the accumulation of culture?
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What is at stake? If chimps or bonobos or
gorillas can be taught human language, then
language is cultural, i.e., humans are NOT
uniquely biologically programmed for
language. If non-human primates cannot be taught
language, then some part of language must be
dependent on the specific biological endowment of
human beings, an ability to learn language (and
other aspects of culture).
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Outline 1. Can chimps be taught to speak
English? 2. What are the principles of
inference through which communication takes place
in the animal world? 3. What are the distinctive
properties of human language as a means of
communication?
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1. Can chimps (or other non-humans) be taught to
speak English?
Recall that chimps do appear to have rudimentary
culture. And to review the human-type
family with its role of husband/father is not
essential to culture. some transmission
can be achieved through the mother-child bond
without the husband-father role.
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However, it is one thing to ask whether
rudimentary culture could be achieved without
human-type families. Another to ask whether
complex culture (including language?) would be
possible without human-type families. Well see
that the more successful attempts to teach
language to non-primates typically involved
placing the animals into human family situations.
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Preliminary observation Some aspects of
language are obviously cultural, that is, they
are socially learned. 6-7,000 languages on
the planet (6,059-7,300) A child brought up
among speakers of any one of those languages will
learn that language and no other The child
will speak that language without an accent, and
speak it fluently, barring physical
impairments Languages differ considerably in
their lexicons, sound patterns, word morphology,
and syntax, as well as in patterns of discourse.
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Historical overview of attempts to teach
non-human primates to speak English 1909
Clinical evaluation of a trained chimp ("Peter")
by L. Witmer claim that the chimp had learned
to say "mama." 1916 W.H. Furness claims to have
taught an Orangutan to say the words "papa" and
"cup."
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1930s Research by Louise and Winthrop Kellog
raised a baby orangutan (named Gua) together with
their son Donald (then 9 1/2 months old). When
Donald was 12 1/2 months old, he could comprehend
20 verbal requests Gua evinced comprehension of
21. Thereafter, Donald began to outstrip
Gua. 1940s Keith and Cathy Hayes attempted to
teach English to a chimp named Vicki.
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Popular movies based on these experiments,
e.g., "Bedtime for Bonzo" (starring Ronald
Reagan)
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Bedtime for Bonzo (1951) Reagan plays a
psychology professor who treats a chimp, Bonzo,
as his child for a nature vs. nurture experiment.
Bedtime for Bonzo is a silly, cute film. The
movie has been cited as Reagan's most ridiculous
career move, but the film displays his comedic
ability.
http//www.usatoday.com/life/columns/video/vid10.h
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Observations Vickis speech 1. Chimp is able
to learn some fragment of human speech evidence
here for transmission of culture from humans to
chimps, however fragmentary. 2. Chimp produces
recognizable words "papa," "mama," and "cup,"
although the sounds she produces are distinct
from their English counterparts
English Vicki p bilabial
click m voiceless m k x, i.e.,
velar fricative a voiceless a
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Observations Vickis speech 3. Vicki produces
the words in response to verbal cues. 4.
However, she never learns to speak like a human.
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Question Why can't chimps learn to speak
English? One popular answer their vocal tract
anatomy is different from that of humans (Philip
Lieberman, Jeffrey Laitman). Note I don't
think that is probably the principal reason.
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Alex the Parrot (research of Irene Pepperberg, U
of Arizona) Capable of distinguishing fine
grained-sound differences, for example, "key"
versus "pea" ki versus pi Capable of
extremely clear pronunciation of words and
phrases, including a clear differentiation of
ki from pi.
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These distinctions are like those that form
the basis of what linguists call "phonemic" (as
opposed to "phonetic") contrasts. Alex is
learning all of this from his human teachers
hence, this is further evidence for the
transmission of a porition of language (words
and phrases) to a non- human species.
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2. What are the principles of inference through
which communication takes place in the animal
world? Associationalist psychology of the 19th
century proposed two 1. Contiguity you can
reason from something (a sign) to something else
(the meaning) by asking with what else that
something is or tends to connected physically
(that is, through space-time co-presence). For
example, a smell might be associated with a
particular animal a vocal call might be
associated with the kind of animal that produces
it).
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The other is 2. Similarity you can reason
from something (a sign) to something else (the
meaning) by asking what else that something
resembles in its physical appearance.
(photograph might resemble the thing
photographed one situation might remind you of
another one individual (for example, of a
species) might resemble another).
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Semiotics the study of signs in relationship to
their use. index a sign whose meaning is
inferred through contiguity icon a sign whose
meaning is inferred through similarity
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Much of human linguistic usage is indexical or
iconic "how are you" ------------------gt "Fine,
and you" "what's that?"
-------------------gt a cup" cup visible
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Much of human communication with animals is
through indexes (and icons). "how many?"
---------------------gt "two" two objects
visible "what color bigger?"
-----------------------gt "yellow" larger of two
objects is yellow
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Conlusion This is not to belittle the
remarkable findings of Irene Pepperberg in her
research with the African Gray Parrot, Alex, or
that of other researchers with non-human
primates. One anthropologist who studies
language as it is actually used (Michael
Silverstein - U Chicago) has suggested that the
vast majority of human communication is through
indexical and iconic signaling. Research has
demonstrated that a considerable amount of human
culture can be passed to non-human species. But
the question remains of whether they are actually
acquiring the kind of language that all human
cultures have.
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3. What are the distinctive properties of human
language as a means of communication? The
ability to generate new signs that another
individual has not heard (or seen) and to have
that individual be able to correctly interpret
those signs. The ability to correctly interpret
a sign that you have not before heard (or seen).
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What makes this possible? Answer the
combinatorial character of human
languages morphology the combination (in
accord with rules) of elementary meaningful units
(called morphemes) into words. re work
er "again" "work"
"one who" "one works something over
again." Some languages (Eskimo languages,
Chinook, Kuna, etc.) rely heavily on morphology
others makes little use of it (Chinese) English
is not terribly big on morphology.
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What makes this possible? Answer the
combinatorial character of human
languages syntax the combination (in accord
with rules) ofwords into sentences. the cat
sat on the mat "The cat sat on the
mat."
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Beyond teaching spoken English to non-human
primates - I 1960s Beatrice and Allen Gardner
attempted to teach sign language (AMSLAN
American Sign Language) instead of spoken English
to the chimp Washoe Washoe learned more than
150 signs claim that she could use some novel
sign combinations. Her adopted son Loulis is
said to have acquired 50 signs from her, without
human intervention.
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Beyond teaching spoken English to non-human
primates - II 1960s David Premack with 6 year
old chimp Sarah -- demonstrated that she had
ability (with colored plastic tokens instead of
speech) to understand and use some grammar
pluralization, "and", "if...then"
constructions. 1970s Francine Penney Patterson
with the gorilla Koko (and later Michael) claim
that Koko uses 1,000 plus gestural signs.
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An Internet Chat with Koko the Gorilla
This is the transcript of
the AOL Live Internet Chat with Koko the gorilla.
Which took place on April 27th, 1998, at 7pm EDT.
In honor of the month long celebration of Earth
Day. This event was the first ever live
inter-species internet chat with Koko the
gorilla. Brought to you courtesy of H.E.A.V.E.N.
(Helping Educate, Activate, Volunteer and Empower
via the Net), The Envirolink Network, The Gorilla
Foundation, and AOL Live.
These pictures are of Koko's life, from
the time she was baby being raised by Dr. Penny
Patterson, to the years growing up at the
Gorilla Foundation. In the past 26 years, she has
raised kittens on her own, she has learned
American Sign Language...with a working
vocabulary of 500 words. Today, she has her own
computer. The Gorilla Foundation was
founded in 1976, to promote the protection and
preservation of gorillas. Project Koko, which
began in 1972, is the primary focus of the
foundation.
HaloMyBaby is the moderator of the chat on AOL,
DrPPatrsn is Koko's friend and trainer, and
LiveKOKO is Koko the gorilla.
Scroll down to read the full
transcript...


http//www.geocities.com/RainForest/Vines/4451/Kok
oLiveChat.html
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Welcome, Dr. Patterson and Koko, we're so happy
you're here! DrPPatrsn You're welcome!
HaloMyBaby Is Koko aware that she's chatting
with thousands of people now? LiveKOKO Good
here. DrPPatrsn Koko is aware.
HaloMyBaby Ill start taking questions from the
audience now, our first question is MInyKitty
asks, Koko are you going to have a baby in the
future? LiveKOKO Pink DrPPatrsn We've
had earlier discussion about colors today
LiveKOKO Listen, Koko loves eat HaloMyBaby Me
too! DrPPatrsn What about a baby? She's
thinking... LiveKOKO Unattention
DrPPatrsn She covered her face with her
hands....which means it's not happening,
basically, or it hasn't happened yet.
LiveKOKO I don't see it. HaloMyBaby That's
sad! DrPPatrsn In other words, she hasn't had
one yet, and she doesn't see it happening. She
needs several females and one male to have a
family. In our setting it really isn't
possible for her to have a baby.
http//www.geocities.com/RainForest/Vines/4451/Kok
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Beyond teaching spoken English to non-human
primates - III 1970s Herbert Terrace, work
with chimp named Nim Chimsky became a critic of
ape language research claimed that Nim could
not use syntax. Responded only to indexical
cues. 1980s Sue Savage-Rumbaugh with the bonobo
Kanzi used computer keyboard. Claimed that,
while Kanzi first used indexical cues, later
developed true language. Could respond
accurately 70 of the time to a novel sentence
communicated to him.
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Conclusion I Ideological positions
of researchers and scholars Can non-human
primates learn language from humans?
NO, the research to date does not show the
ability of chimps to acquire morphology or syntax
in any consistent way. Much of the research can
be explained through indexicality and iconicity,
or through the "clever Hans" phenomenon (Thomas
Sebeok).
YES, we have demonstrated that bonobos, chimps,
and gorillas are capable of learning human
language they have, in the process, passed the
threshold into humanness.
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Conclusion II Realities of research to
date Can non-human primates learn language from
humans?
NOT REALLY, the research to date on non-human
primates is highly suggestive. Apes clearly have
the ability to acquire culturally constituted
signs in some quantity, but their ability to
produce and interpret novel sign combinations has
not been fully establish. The apes make too many
errors in syntax tests to have confidence that
they have made the transition to language.
SORT OF, bonobos, chimps, and gorillas show
evidence of being able to acquire through social
learning many (500 ) individual signs and to
pass some of those signs onto their offspring
(hence, they have some culture). They also show
some ability to produce and interpret novel sign
combinations. Hence, they have something like an
incipient or proto-language ability.
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