????? ??? ??? ????????? ??

1
????? ???? ????????
2
??? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ???? ?? ?? ???? ?????
??? ???? ? ????, ? ??? ?????? ????? ?? ?????
????? ?? ?? ??? ??? ??? ??? ? ????? ?????? ?? ???
????.
3
?????? ???? ? ???? ???? ????? ????? ??? ??? ??
???? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ? ???????????
???? ??? ???.
4
?? ???? ????? ?? ????? ????? ????? ????? ??????
??? ??? ????? ??????? ?? ?? ????????? ???? ? ????
????? ????? ???? ???? ????.
5
??? ??? ????? ?? ?? ?? ?? ??? ?????? ????
???????? ????? ?????? ?????? ???? ?? ???.
6
?? ?? ???? ???? ?? ???? ????? ??? ????? ?? ?????
??? ??????? ?? ??? ???.
7
????? ??? ??? ????????? ?? ????? ???? ?????? ,
?????????? ?????? , ?????? ? ????????? ??
????? ?? ?????? 1 3 ???? ???? ??? ???.
8
????? ????? ????? ??????
?????? ???? ??????
????? ???? ??????
????
????
?????????
??????
????? ????? ??? ???
?????? 1 3 ???? ???????? ???? ????? ?????
???????
9
?? ???? ?? ?????? ???? ?? ??? ?? ?? ?? ??
?????????? ?? ???????? ????? ??? ?? ??????? ????
? ????? ?? ??? ??? ?? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ??
???????? ????? ???.
10
??? ?? ??? ??? ???? ?? ?? ?????? ??? ?? ???? ???
????????? ?? ???? ????? ? ????? ??? ???? ?? ??
?????.
11
????? ?? ???? ???????? ????? ???? , ??? ???? ??
???? ????? ???? ????.
12
???? ???????? ????? ????????? ?????? ??????? ??
???? ????? ????? ??? ??????? ???? ?? ????.
13
???? ? ????? ??? ???? ???????? ?? ?? ?????????
??????? ????? ????? ?? ???? ??? ???? ,????? ?????
??????? ? ???? ??? (modus operandi) ????? ???????
??????? ????? ?? ???????? ?? ???? ?? ??? ?? ?????
?????.
14
???????? ???? ?? ??? ?? ??? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ??
?????? ??????? ??? ?? ??? ????? ?? ????? ???????
?? ?? ???? ?? ?? ?? ????? ???? ?? ?? ??? ???????
????? ???? ?? ?? ????? ????? ?? ?? ????? ?? ?????
????? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ?? ???? ??????.
15
Paradigm is a term which is intended to emphasise
the commonality of perspective which binds the
work of a group of theorists together in such a
way that they can be usefully regarded as
approaching social theory within the bounds of
the same problematic.
16
??? ????? ?? ???? ???? ??? ????? ??? ???? ???
?????? ?? ???? ?? ????? ?? ????? ?? ???????? ???
????? ???????? ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ?? ?? ??????
?????? ????? ???.
17
This definition does not imply complete unity of
thought.
18
It allows for the fact that within the context of
any given paradigm there will be much debate
between theorists who adopt different standpoints.
19
?? ?? ??? ???????? ?? ??? ????????? ????? ?
?????? ???? ??? ????? ?? ???? ???????? ???.
20
The paradigm does , however , have an underlying
unity in terms of its basic and often taken for
granted assumptions , which separate a group of
theorists in a very fundamental way form
theorists located in other paradigms.
21
?? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ?? ???? ?? ?????? ??
????? ???????? ?? ?? ??????????? ???? ???? ?????
??? ?????? ?? ????.
22
The unity of the paradigm thus derives from
reference to alternative views of reality which
lie outside its boundaries and which may not
necessarily even be recognized as existing.
23
???? ????? ???? ???????? ?? ?????? ?? ?????????
???? ?? ??????? ?? ?????? ?? ???? ?? ??? ?? ????
???? ? ??? ???? ??? ??????? ??? ???? ????????
???? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ???? ?? ????.
24
All social theorists can be located within the
context of these four paradigms according to the
meta - theoretical assumptions reflected in their
work.
25
???? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??? ??????
??????? ?? ?? ??? ???? ????? ??? ???? ??? ??
??????????? ???????? ???? ?? ?????.
26
The four paradigms taken together provide a map
for negotiating the subject area,
27
?? ??? ???????? ??? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ??????? ???
???? ?? ?? ???? ??? ? ?????? ?????? ??????????
??????? ????? ?? ?????.
28
Which offers a convinient means of identifying
the basic similarities and differences between
the work of various theorists,
29
??? ???? ????? ????? ?? ???? ???? ???? ??????? ?
???????? ???? ??? ??? ????? ??????? ?????,
30
And , in particular, the underlying frame of
reference which they adopt.
31
? ????? ???? ??? ???? ??? ????? ?? ???? ?????
?????? ????? ?? ???.
32
It also provides a convenient way of locating
ones own personal frame of reference with regard
to social theory,
33
??? ???? ?????? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ???
???? ???? ?????? ???? ??? ???? ???? ??? ?? ?????
?? ????? ??????? ????? ?? ???.
34
And thus a means of understanding why certain
theories and perspectives may have more personal
appeal than others.
35
??? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ??? ???? ??? ???
?? ???? ?? ??? ?? ??? ????? ?? ? ????????? ????
???? ?? ?????? ????? ????.
36
Like any other map L it provides a fool for
establishing where you are , where you have been
, and where it is possible to go in the future.
37
??? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ???? ????
???, ???? ?? ????? ???? ???? ??? ? ???? ???????
?? ?? ????? ?? ?? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ???.
38
Each paradigm defines a range of intellectual
territory.
39
?? ???????? ???? ?? ?? ?? ????? ???? ?? ????? ??
???.
40
Given the overall meta theoretical assumptions
which distinguish one paradigm from another,
41
?? ?????? ??? ?????? ??????? ??? ?? ?????? ?????
?? ???????? ?? ???????? ???? ???,
42
There is room for much variation within them.
43
???? ?????????? ??? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ??? ?? ????.
44
Within the context of the functionalist
paradigm , for example , certain theorists adopt
move extereme positions in terms of one or both
of the two dimensions than others.
45
???? ???? , ???? ???????? ????????? ???? ??
????? ??????? ?? ?????? ?? ?????? ??????? ?????
?????? ?????? ?? ??? ?? ?? ?? ??? ????? ???? ???.
46
Such differences often account for the internal
debate which goes on between theorists engaged in
the activities of normal science within the
context of the same paradigm.
47
??? ???? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??? ?????
??????? ????? ?? ????????? ???? ?????? ??
????? ???????? ?? ???.
48
Some inter - paradigm debate is also possible.
49
????? ???? ?? ??? ???? ???????? ??? ???? ????.
50
Giddens maintains that all paradigms are
mediated by others
51
????? ????? ??? ?? ?? ???? ????????? ...
?????????? ???? ??? ????? ?????.
52
And that within normal science scientists are
aware of other paradigms.
53
??? ???? ???? ?????? ????????? ?? ??????????
???? ???? ?????.
54
He posits that the process of learning a
paradigm is also the process of learning what
that paradigm is not.
55
?? ????? ?? ??? ?? ?????? ??????? ?? ????????
... ?????? ??????? ??? ?? ???????? ?? ???? ????
?? ??? ????? ?? ????.
56
Interestingly , he confines his discussion to the
mediation of one paradigm by another one.
57
???? ???? ??? ??? ?? ?? ??? ??? ?? ?? ?????? ???
?? ???????? ???? ??????????? ???? ????? ?? ???.
58
Burrell and Morgan believe that a model of four
conflicting paradigms within sociology is move
accurate,
59
???? ? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ?? ??? ???? ?? ????
????????? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ?? ???.
60
And that academics knowledge of scientists
within the other three paradigms is likely to be
very sketchy in some cases.
61
???????? ?? ????? ??????? ????????? ??
??????????? ?? ???? ???? ?? ???? ?? ????? ?????
???? ???.
62
Relations between paradigms are perhaps better
described in terms of disinterested hostility
rather than debate.
63
???????? ????? ????? ??? ?????????? ?? ?????
????? ?? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ?? ?? ????
?????? ?? ????.
64
The four paradigms are mutually exclusive.
65
??? ???? ???????? ????? ????? ?????.
66
They offer alternative views of social reality,
and to understand the nature of all four is to
understand four different views of society.
67
???? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ???????
??????? ?????? ??????? ?? ???????? ? ????? ?????
?? ???? ???????? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ?? ????
??? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ???? ?? ???.
68
The offer different ways of seeing.
69
??? ???????? ?? ???? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ???????
???? ?? ????.
70
A synthesis is not not possible, since in their
pure forms they are contradictory, being based on
at least one set of opposing meta-theoretical
assumptions.
71
????? ???? ????? ????? ???? ?? ??? ???? ???
???????? ?? ?? ?? ????? ????? ? ????? ?? ??
?????? ?? ??? ??? ??? ??? ???? ?? ?? ??? ??? ???
???????? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ????.
72
They are alternatives, in the sense that one can
operate in different paradigms sequentially over
time,
73
???????? ?? ?? ??? ??? ???? ???????? ?? ????? ??
????? ?? ??? ???? ?? ???????? ??? ??????? ???
?????.
74
but mutually exclusive, in the sense
that one can not operate in more than one
paradigm at any given point in time, since in
accepting the assumption of one, we defy the
assumptions of all the others.
75
??? ???????? ?? ?? ??? ???? ????? ?????
????? ?? ????? ??? ????? ?? ?? ???? ????? ???? ??
??? ?? ?? ???????? ?????? ???? ????? ???? ???? ??
??????? ??? ??? ??? ?? ???????? ??? ??? ???
???????? ??? ???? ??? ?? ???.
76
Burrell and Morgan offer the four paradigms for
consideration in these terms, in the hope that
knowledge of the competing points of view will at
least make us aware of the boundaries within
which we approach our subject.
77
???? ? ????? ???? ????????
?? ?? ???? ??? ????? ????? ????? ? ??????? ?????
?? ????? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ?? ?? ??
??????? ?? ?? ???? ???? ???? ??? ?? ????? ??? ??
???? ???? ???
78
The functionalist paradigm
This paradigm has provided the dominant framework
for the conduct of academic sociology and the
study of organizations.
79
???????? ?????????
???????? ????????? ??????? ???? ?? ???? ????
????? ????? ???????? ? ?????? ???????? ????? ????
???.
80
It represents a perspective which is firmly
rooted in the sociology of regulation and
approaches its subject matter from an objectivist
point of view.
81
??? ???????? ?????? ??????? ??? ?? ?????? ??
????? ????? ??? ??? ???? ???? ? ?? ?? ???? ???
???? ??? ?? ??? ?? ????? ??? ?? ??????.
82
Functionalist theories have been at the fore
front of the order conflict debate, and the
concepts which we have used to categories the
sociology of regulation apply in varying degrees
to all schools of thought within the paradigm.
83
????? ??????? ????????? ?? ?? ???? ?????? ??? ?
???? ???? ???? ? ??????? ?? ?? ???? ???? ????
????? ????? ??? ??? ?? ??? ???? ??? ?? ?????
??????? ?? ????? ????? ????? ?? ??? ???????? ??
??? ?? ???.
84
It is characterized by a concern for providing
explanations of the status quo, social order,
consensus, social integration, solidarity, need
satisfaction and actuality.
85
?? ????? ?? ???? ??? ??? ???????? ?? ????? ?????
????? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ???????? ???????? ?????
???????? ???????? ????? ???? ? ????? ?? ????.
86
The functionalist paradigm is often problem
oriented in approach, concerned to provide
practical solutions to practical problems.
87
???????? ????????? ?? ?????? ??? ?????? ?????
???? ???. ? ????? ??? ??? ?? ????
?????? ???? ??? ?? ??? ???? ????? ?????.
88
It is usually firmly committed to a philosophy of
social engineering as a basis of social change
and emphasises the importance of understanding
order, equilibrium and stability in society and
the way in which these can be maintained.
89
??? ???????? ?? ??? ?? ????? ?????? ??????? ??
????? ?????? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ???? ? ??
????? ????? ???? ????? ? ???? ?? ????? ? ????
????? ???? ????? ?? ???.
90
It is concerned with the effective regulation
and control of social affairs.
91
???????? ????????? ?? ????? ? ??? ??? ??? ???
???? ??????? ????? ??? ???.
92
The approach to social science characteristic of
the functionalist paradigm is rooted in the
tradition of sociological positivism.
93
??????? ?? ???????? ????????? ?? ???? ???????
???? ?? ??? ????? ????? ????? ????? ???? ????.
94
This reflects the attempt, par excellence, to
apply the models and methods of the natural
sciences to the study of human affairs.
95
??? ??? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ??? ??????? ??
????? ? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ???? ??????
?? ????.
96
Originating in France in the early decades of the
nineteenth century, its major influence upon the
paradigm has been through the work of,
97
??? ??? ?? ?? ??? ??? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ??????
??? ????? ??????? ????? ?? ???????? ???????????
?? ?? ???? ????
98
Social theorists such as Auguste Comte, Herbert
Spencer, Emile Durkheim and Vilfredo Pareto
99
????? ??????? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ???? ?????
?????? ? ?????? ? ????? ?????? ???.
100
The functionalist approach to social science
tends to assume that the social world is composed
of relatively concrete empirical artefacts and
relationships which can be identified, studied
and measured through approaches derived from the
natural sciences.
101
?????? ????????? ??? ??? ?? ??????
???? ??????? ?? ??? ?? ???? ??????? ?? ??????? ?
????? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ??? ??? ?? ?? ????
?????? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ?? ???? ???? ??
???????? ????? ? ?????? ???? ???.
102
The use of mechanical and biological analogies as
a means of modelling and understanding the social
world is particularly favoured in many
functionalist theories.
103
??????? ?? ??????? ??????? ? ????? ?? ????? ?????
??????? ? ????? ???? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ??
????? ??????? ????????? ?? ????.
104
Put very crudely, therefore, the formation of the
functionalist paradigm can be understood in terms
of the interaction of three sets of intellectual
forces, as illustrated in figure 3.2.
105
????????? ?? ???? ???? ???? ?? ???? ??? ??? ????
???????? ????????? ?? ?? ???? ????? ???? ??
?????? ????? ???? ????? ???????? ?? ?? ?????? 2?3
???? ???? ??? ???.
106
The Sociology of Radical Change
Marxist theory
Objective
Subjective
German Idealism
The sociology of Regulation
Sociological positivism
Figure 3.2 Intellectual influences upon the
functionalist paradigm
107
Of these sociological positivism has been the
most influential.
108
?? ???? ??? ??????? ????? ??? ????? ????? ?????
????? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ???.
109
By way of overview, again some what crudely,
figure 3.3 and 3.4 illustrate the four paradigms
in terms of the constituent schools of
sociological and organizational theory which we
shall be exploring later on.
110
???? ???? ??? ???? ??? ?? ???? ??? ????????? 3?3
? 4?3 ???? ???????? ?? ?? ??? ???? ??? ?????
????? ????? ????? ?????? ? ????? ??????? ?? ?????
????? ?????? ??? ?? ???? ?? ???.
111
As will be apparent, most organization theorists,
industrial sociologists, psychologists and
industrial relations theorists, approach their
subject from within the bounds of the
functionalist paradigm.
112
???? ???? ?? ???? ????? ?? ????? ????? ???????
???????? ????? ?????? ????? ?????????? ? ?????
??????? ????? ????? ?? ????? ??? ?? ???? ??????
???????? ????????? ????? ?? ????.
113
The Interpretive Paradigm
Theorists located within the context of the
interpretive paradigm adopt an approach consonant
with the tenets of what Burrell and Morgan have
described as the sociology of regulation,
114
???????? ??????
????? ???????? ?? ?? ???? ???????? ?????? ???? ??
????? ??????? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ?? ???? ? ?????
?? ????? ????? ????? ??? ??? ????? ???? ???
?????? ?? ????.
115
The Sociology of Radical Change
Radical Humanism
Radical Structuralism
Anarchistic Individualism
Contemporary Mediterranean Marxism
S O L I P S I S M
Russian social Theory
French Existentialism
Critical Theory
Conflict Theory
Objective
Subjective
Integrative theory
Social System Theory
phenomenology
Hermeneutics
Interactionism and social action theory
Phenomenological sociology
objectivesm
Interpretive Sociology
Functionalist Sociology
The Sociology of Regulation
Figure 3.3. The four sociological paradigms
116
The Sociology of Radical Change
Anti Organization Theory
Radical Organization Theory
Subjective
Objective
pluralism
Ethnomethodology and
Action frame of reference
Theories of bureaucratic dysfunctions
Social system Theory
Phenomenological symbolic Interactionism
Objectivism
The Sociology of Regulation
Figure 3.4 The main schools of organizational
analysis
117
Though its subjectivist approach to the analysis
of the social world makes its links this
sociology often implicit rather than explicit.
118
?? ??? ?????? ???? ???? ?? ?? ????? ???? ???????
????? ???? ?? ??? ????? ????? ???? ?? ??? ?????
?? ????? ???????? ???? ?? ?????? ???? ? ??????
???.
119
The interpretive paradigm is informed by a
concern to understand the world as it is,
120
???????? ?????? ?? ????? ?? ?? ????? ???? ?? ????
?? ??? ??? ????? ???.
121
To understand the fundamental nature of the
social world at the level of subjective
experience.
122
???? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ??????? ?? ??? ?????
????
123
It seeks explanation within the realm of
individual consciousness and subjectivity, within
the frame of reference of the participant as
opposed to the observer of action.
124
???????? ?????? ?? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ????? ???
????? ???? ? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ???????? ???
???? ????? ??? ?? ?????? ?? ???
125
In its approach to social science it tends to be
nominalist, antipositivist, and ideographic.
126
???????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ???? ??????? ?????
?? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ??? ????????? ? ????
????? ????.
127
It sees the social world as an emergent social
process which is created by the individuals
concerned.
128
???? ??????? ?? ?? ????? ?? ?????? ??????? ??????
????? ?? ???? ?? ???? ????? ????? ??? ????? ???
???.
129
Social reality, insofar as it is recognized to
have any existence outside the consciousness of
any single individual,
130
?????? ??????? ?? ?????? ?? ?????? ???? ??? ?????
????? ?? ???????? ?? ??? ????? ????.
131
Is regarded as being little more than a network
of assumptions and inter subjectively shared
meanings.
132
?? ????? ??? ??? ?? ?? ???? ??????? ? ????? ?????
???? ????? ????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ???.
133
Interpretive philosophers and sociologists seek
to understand the very basis and source of social
reality.
134
?????? ? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????
????? ???? ? ???? ?????? ??????? ?????.
135
They often delve into the depths of human
consciousness and subjectivity in their quest for
the fundamental meanings which underlie social
life,
136
???? ???? ?? ????? ???????? ????? ??? ?? ???? ?
????? ????? ?? ???? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ???
???? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ?? ??? ???? ?? ???.
137
Interpretive sociology is concerned with
understanding the essence of the everyday world.
138
????? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ???? ??????
????? ??? ???.
139
In terms of the analytical schema it is
underwritten by an involvement with issues
relating to the nature of status quo, social
order, consensus, social integration and
cohesion, solidarity and actuality.
140
?????? ??? ?????? ???? ? ?????? ??? ????? ?????
??? ?? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ?? ????? ???
?????? ??? ???????? ????? ?????? ? ????? ????????
??????? ? ????? ????? ?? ????.
141
The interpretive paradigm is the direct product
of the German idealist tradition of social
thought.
142
???????? ?????? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ???????
???? ????? ?????? ???.
143
Its foundations were laid in the work of Kant and
reflect a social philosophy which emphasises the
essentially spiritual nature of the social world.
144
????? ??? ???????? ?? ??? ???? ???? ???? ????? ?
???? ????? ??????? ?? ???? ?? ??? ?? ?????? ??
????? ????? ???? ??????? ????? ?? ???.
145
Figures 3.3 and 3.4 illustrate the manner in
which the paradigm has been explored as far as
our present interest in social theory and the
study organizations is concerned.
146
?? ???? ?? ?? ????? ???? ?? ?? ????? ??????? ?
?????? ???????? ????? ?? ???? ????????? ????? 3?3
? 4?3 ???? ??????? ????? ??? ?????? ??? ????????
?? ???? ?? ???.
147
Whilst there have been a small number of attempts
to study organizational concepts and situations
from this point of view, The paradigm has not
generated a precise organizational theory.
148
?? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?
?????? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ??? ??? ???????? ?????
??? ???? ??? ???????? ?? ????? ???? ????? ???????
?????? ?? ???? ??????? ???.
149
????? ????? ???? ??? ??? ???? ????. ???? ????????
?????? ???? ???????? ?? ?? ?????? ??? ?? ?????
?????? ???? ????? ???? ?? ???.
150
???????? ????? ??? ???????? ???? ?????? ????????
?? ????? ????? ?????? ???.
151
??? ???????? ????? ??? ?????? ???? ??????
????????? ????????? ?? ????? ????? ???? ??? ? ??
?????? ???????? ?? ?? ??? ??? ???? ???? ???? ??
???.
152
???????? ????? ???? ??????
Radical humanist paradigm
153
???????? ????? ???? ?????? ??? ?? ????? ?? ?????
????? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ???? ???
???? ????.
154
??? ???????? ????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ????
??????? ?? ?? ??????? ?????? ?? ??? ??????? ???
????? ?????? ?????? ????? ? ???? ?????? ?? ????.
155
??? ???? ??? ???? ??? ???????? ?? ??????? ??
????? ????? ?? ??? ?? ?? ????? ??? ???? ?? ????
?????? ??????? ??? ??????? ??????? ????? ??????
???.
156
??? ?? ????? ???? ??????? ?? ??????? ?? ???
???????? ?? ????? ?? ??? ??? ??? ?? ?????
????? ????? ????????? ??????????? ?? ????? ??
???? ????? ???? ?? ???.
157
? ??? ???????? ???? ????? ???? ?????? ???? ?????
? ????? ????? ?? ?? ???.
158
??? ????? ???? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ????? ???? ???
?? ???? ????? ????? ????? ?? ???.
159
???? ???? ???? ????? ???????? ?? ?? ???? ???
???????? ???? ??? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ???
???? ????? ?? ??????? ???? ??? ?? ??????? ???????
????? ??? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ?? ???.
160
???????? ????? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ????
??? ????? ??? ????? ??????? ? ????? ????? ?? ???.
161
?????? ???? ??????? ? ????? ???? ?????? ? ?????
?? ??? ?????? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ???
???? ???? ???? ??????? ?????.
162
???????? ?????? ???? ??????
Radical stracturalist paradigm
163
????? ??? ???????? ?? ?????? ??? ????? ??? ?????
?? ?????? ????? ????????? ????? ??? ???? ?????
??????? ??? ?? ???.
164
Radical structuralism is committed to radical
change, emancipation and potentiality, In an
analysis which emphasizes structural conflict,
modes of domination, contradiction and
deprivation.
165
??????????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ?? ???? ????????
???? ??? ????? ???? ? ??????? ????? ?? ??? ??
????? ??????? ??? ???? ? ????? ?????? ???.
166
It approaches these general concerns from a
standpoint which tends to be realist, positivist,
determinist and nomothetic.
167
??? ????????
?? ???? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ?????
?????? ??? ????? ? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ??? ??
????? ??? ????? ??? ?? ???.
168
Where as the radical humanists forge their
perspective by focusing upon consciousness as
the basis for a radical critique of society,
169
?? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??? ?? ??
????? ?? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ??? ??????
????? ???? ?? ?????.
170
The radical structuralists concentrate upon
structural relationships within a realist social
world.
171
?????? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ????
??????? ???? ??? ???? ?????.
172
They emphasise the fact that radical change is
built into the very nature and structure of
contemporary society,
173
???? ?? ??? ????? ????? ?? ???? ?? ?????
?????? ???? ??? ????? ? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????
??? ???.
174
And they seek to provide explanations of the
basic interrelationships with in the context of
total social formations.
175
? ?? ??? ????? ???? ???? ?? ???? ????? ??????
????? ???? ???? ??? ???? ??? ??? ??????? ?????
????.
176
Common to all theorists within the paradigm, is
the view that contemporary society is
characterised by fundamental conflicts which
generate radical change through political and
economic crises.
177
??? ????? ???? ????? ??????? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ??
????? ????? ?? ?? ???? ?? ???? ??? ?????? ???? ??
????? ??? ????? ? ??????? ????? ?????? ????? ???.
178
It is through such conflict and change that the
emancipation of men from the social structures in
which they live is seen as coming about.
179
?? ???? ???? ???? ? ????????? ?? ????? ????? ??
?????? ??? ??????? ?? ?? ?? ????? ?? ???
???? ?? ????.
180
?????? ??? 3?3 ? 4?3 ????? ??? ?? ????? ???? ????
??? ???????? ???? ??? ???????? ?? ???? ??????
???? ???? ???? ??????? ???? ???? ?????? ??? ????
???? ???? ?????? ?????? ?? ????.
181
????? ????? ????????? ???? ?? ? ??????? ????
Functionalist Sociology
Origins and Intellectual Tradition
182
The mode of social theorising which characterises
this paradigm has a long history.
183
???? ????? ?????? ??????? ?? ?? ????? ????? ???
???????? ??? ??????? ?????? ????.
184
As Raymond Aron has suggested, Comte may be
regarded, first and foremost, as the sociologist
of human and social unity (Aron , 1965 , p. 5q).
185
?????? ?? ????? ??? ? ???? ???? ??? ?? ???? ???
?? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ???? ???? ?????? ?
??????? ???? ???.
186
He believed that knowledge and society was in a
process of evolutionary transition, and that the
function of sociology was to understand the
necessary, indispensable and inevitable course of
history in such a way as to promote the
realisation of a new social order.
187
?? ????? ??? ?? ???? ? ????? ?? ??????? ?? ??????
?????? ??? ? ????? ????? ???? ??? ??? ?? ???
????, ????? ? ?????? ?????? ????? ?? ?? ???? ??
?? ???? ??? ??????? ???? ?? ?????? ??? ??????.
188
From Comtes point of view this evolution passed
through three stages of development
189
?? ??? ???, ??? ????? ?? ?? ????? ??? ???? ???.
190
the Theological, or fictitious the
Metaphysical, or abstract and the scientific, or
positive.
191
????? ????? ?? ?????, ????? ????????????,???
??????, ?????? ????, ?? ??????,
192
He defined the positive mode of thought in the
following terms
193
?? ???? ?????? ???? ?? ??? ???? ????? ???
194
In the final, the positive state, the mind has
given over the vain search after absolute notions,
195
?? ????? ??????, ???? ???? ??????, ??? ?????
?????? ???? ????? ????,
196
The origin and destination of the universe and
the causes of phenomena, and applies itself to
the study of their laws, I.e. their invariable
relations of succession and resemblance.
197
????? ? ???? ???? ? ??? ????? ?? ?? ???? ?????? ?
???? ??? ?? ?? ????? ?????? ????, ???? ?????
???????????? ?? ?? ????? ? ??????? ???? ?????? ??
??? ????? ?? ?????.
198
Reasoning and observation duly combined are the
means of this knowledge (Comte, 1853, vol. I, pp.
1-2).
199
??????? ? ?????? ?? ?? ???? ????? ????? ??? ???
????? ??? ???? ?? ?????.
200
Comtes vision was of a world in which scientific
rationality was in the ascendancy, underlying
the basis of a well regulated social order.
201
???? ??? ????? ??? ?? ?? ?? ??????? ???? ????
???? ? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ??????? ??? ????? ???
??? ?? ???.
202
Comte believed that all sciences passed through
his three phases of development but did so at
different times according to their complexity.
203
??? ????? ??? ?? ???? ???? ?? ????? ?? ???? ????
?? ?????? ?? ?? ???? ???? ??? ?? ?????? ???
?????? ??????? ???? ??? ?????? ?? ??????? ???????
???? ?? ????.
204
For Comte the positive approach provided the
key to mans destiny,
205
?? ????? ??? ?????? ?????? ????? ?? ??? ? ??????
????? ????? ?? ???.
206
Or, as Aron has put it, the one type of society
which is absolutely valid and at which all
mankind must arrive (Aron, 1965, p. 59)
207
?? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ????
????? ??? ?? ?????? ?????. ? ???? ????? ??? ????
?? ?? ?????.
208
Comte thus laid the foundations for the mode of
social theorizing characteristic of the
functionalist paradigm.
209
??? ???? ??? ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ?? ??
?????? ???????? ?????? ????? ??? ??? ????.
210
Based upon the positive model of the natural
sciences, utilizing mechanical and organic
analogies,
211
?? ?????? ??? ?????? ???? ?????, ?? ??????? ??
??????? ??????? ? ???????? .
212
Distinguishing between statics (structure) and
dynamics (process), and advocating methodological
holism,Comte initiated important ground rules for
a sociological enterprise geared to an
explanation of social order and regulation.
213
????? ???? ??????? (??????) ? ?????? (??????) ??
????? ??? ? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ?????, ????
???? ?? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ????? ??? ??
???? ??? ? ????? ??????? ????? ????.
214
Herbert spencers principal contribution was to
develop in a more detailed and extensive manner
the implications of the biological analogy for
sociology.
215
????? ?????? (1903 1820) ????? ???? ?? ??
????????? ????? ????? ?? ?? ??? 1870 ? 1880 ????
??? ???? ??, ?? ????? ?? ????? ??? ?? ???? ???
, ??? ??? ?? ?? ???? ??? ?????? ? ?????? ?? ?????
???? ???? ????? ?? ???? ????? ????? ???? ???.
216
Influenced by the work of Darwin, he saw the
study of sociology as the study of evolution in
its most complex form.
217
?? ?? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ??????? ???, ??????
????? ????? ?? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ??????
???? ???? ?? ?????.
218
His work did much to lay the foundations for the
analysis of social phenomena in terms of
structure and junction,
219
??? ?? ????? ????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ??? ?????
????? ??? ??????? ?? ????????? ? ?????? ????.
220
Elaborating Comtes notion of totality and the
need to understand the parts in the context of
the whole.
221
?? ????? ?????, ???? ???? ??? ? ??? ????? ?? ????
?? ?? ????.
222
In this respect, however, he was more of a
methodological individualist than Comte,
maintaining that the properties of the aggregate
are determined by the properties of its units.
223
?? ?? ???, ?? ??? ???? , ?? ?? ??? ??? ??????
????? ?? ??? , ?????? ??? ? ????? ??? ?? ???? ??
?????? ??????? ??????? ????? ????? ?? ????? ??
????.
224
Many of the notions underpinning what we now know
as structural functionalism derive from spencers
work.
225
?????? ? ??????? ???????? ???? ?? ???? ?? ??
????? ?????????? ??????? ?? ?????? ?? ??? ??????
????? ??? ???.
226
In particular the parallels which he drew between
societies and organisms, and the view that the
parts of society function in ways which
contribute to the maitenance of the whole, have
been highly influential.
227
???????, ?????? ???? ?? ?? ?? ??? ????? ?
?????????? ????? ???? ??? ? ??? ?????? ?? ?????
????? ?? ???? ???? ??? ?? ???? ?? ???? ???? ?? ??
??? ????? ????? ????? ? ??????? ???? ???.
228
Spencers focus of attention was primarily ,
though not exclusively , directed at the level of
the organism rather than the species. Societies
were seen as super organisms
229

???? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ??? ???? ????? ?
???? ??????? ?????? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ??
???????? ????? ?? ??? ???????? ??? ?? ???? ??. ??
????? ?? ???? ??????????? ?? ?? ?????.
230
This organismic frame of reference emphasises the
unity , interdependence and ordered nature of
constituent relationships.
231
??? ??????? ???? ????????? ?? ???? , ???????
?????? ? ????? ???? ????? ????? ????? ?? ????? ??
???.
232
A some what different view emerges from an
analysis conducted at the level of the specicies.
233
?? ?????? ?? ?? ??? ???? ?? ????? ?? ???? ???????
?? ??? ?????? ???? ?? ????.
234
As Buckley has noted,the particular level of
biological organization that is chosen as the
basis for a model of society determines (or may
be determined by) whether we see society as pre -
eminently cooperative or basically conflictual.
235
?????? ?? ?? ??? ????? ??? ??? ??? ????? ??
?????? ????? ?? ?? ????? ???? ???? ??? ?????
?????? ?? ??? ???? ?? ??? (?? ???????? ?? ???
???? ???? ?? ???) ?? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ?????
???? ?????? ?????? ?? ?? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ??
??????? ??? ?? ??? ??????.
236
If society is like an organism, then its parts
co-operate and do not compete in a struggle for
survival,
237
??? ????? ?? ???? ???????? ?? ??? ????? ??? , ??
??? ???? ????? ?? ?? ?? ?????? ?? ???? ? ?? ???
????? ???? ?? ?? ????? ??? ????,
238
But if society is like an ecological aggregate,
then the Darwinian (or Hobbesian) model of
competitive struggle is more applicable.
239
??? ??? ?? ???? ?? ?????? ??? ?????? ??????? ???
?? ??? ???? ??? ??????? (???????) ?? ???? ?????
?????? ????? ???? ?? ???.
240
Whilst spencer did draw parallels between the
evolution of societies and the evolution of
species emphasizing the role of conflict ,
including warfare , as a force of change -
241
????? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ? ????? ???? ??
?????? ???? ????? ???? , ? ?? ??? ???? , ??? ????
??? , ?? ????? ????? ??? ????? ??????? ????? ??
??? ?
242
It was within the context of a theoretical
perspective which emphasized the inevitable march
towards more complex and integrated social
systems.
243
??? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ??? ???????
??????? ????? ?????? ? ????? ????? ?? ????.
244
Industrial society was viewed at its most
advanced form.
245
????? ????? ?? ??????? ???? ??? ??? ?? ??? ?????
?? ????.
246
As parsons has commented,spencers god was
Evolution, sometimes also called progress.
247
?????? ?? ??????? ????? ????? ??? ????? ????
?????? ??? , ?? ???? ?????? ?? ?? ?????.
248
Spencer was one of the most vociferous in his
devotions to this god, but by no means alone
among the faithful.
249
?????? ??? ?? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ??? ???
??? , ??? ?? ??? ??? ???? ?????? ?? ????.
250
Emile Durkheim (1858 1917) explicitly
recognized the influence of comte and spencer
upon his sociological thought
251
???? ???????? (1917 1858) ?????? ?? ????? ??? ?
?????? ?? ???? ????? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ???.
252
But he approached their work in a critical vein.
253
??? ?? ?? ??? ??? ?? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ?? ???.
254
As Lukes (1973) has noted , comtes influence on
Durkheim was a formative rather than a continuing
one,
255
?????? ?? ???? (1973) ????? ??? ??? , ????? ???
?? ?? ?????? ????? ??????? ??? ?? ?????? ?????,
256
The extension of the positive , or scientific
attitude to the study of society probably being
most important.
257
?? ?? ??? ???? ????? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ??
???? ?? ?????? ????? ???????? ????? ?? ??? ???
???.
258
Although Durkheim specifically dissociated
himself from many of comtes beliefs, he was
firmly influenced by the comtian notion of a
concrete social reality capable of rational
scientific investigation.
259
????? ???????? ?? ??? ??? ??? ?? ?? ?????? ??
????? ??? ???? ?? ???? , ??? ?????? ?? ?????
???????? ??? ?????? ???? ?????? ??????? ???? ??
?????? ????? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ???????
???.
260
Durkheim believed that causal analysis was
required in addition to what we would now call
functional analysis
261
???????? ????? ??? ?? ????? ?? ???? ?? ?? ??????
??? ????? ????? ??????? ?? ?????? ????? ??? ???
???? ???.
262
to show now a fact is useful is not to explain
how it originated or why it is what it is.
263
???? ???? ???? ???? ?? ????? ??? ???? ?? ???? ???
??? ?? ?? ????? ????? ????? ???? ??? ?? ????? ???
??? ????? ?? ?? ???? ?? ???? ??? ?? ????.
264
The uses which it serves pre-suppose the specific
properties characterizina it but do not create
them
265
?????? ?? ?? ????? ????? ?? ??? ???????? ???? ??
?? ????? ????? ?? ?? ???? ??? ??? ???? ?? ??? ???
??? ????? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ?????? ...
266
When , then , the explanation of a social
phenomenon is undertaken , we must seek
separately the efficient cause which produces it
and the function it fulfills.
267
??? , ????? ?? ?? ????? ????? ??????? ?? ???????
???? ??? ???? ?? ????? ?? ?? ???? ????? ? ???????
?? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ??? ??????? ????? ??????.
(????????, 1938 , ?89).
268
In terms of method , therefore , Durkheim ,
following comte and spencer , borrowed freely
from the natural sciences
269
???????? , ???????? ?? ????? ?? ??? ? ?????? ???
??? ?? ?? ????? ???? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ???.
270
A methodological holist , distinguishing between
causes , functions and structures , he added much
in terms of sophistication to the thought of
these earlier theorists,
271
?? ?? ????? ?? ??? ?? ??? ????? , ??? ??? ,
???????? ? ???????? ????? ???? ??. ???? ??????
????? ??? ????? ??????? ??? ?? ??? ???? ????? ??
???? ?????? ???.
272
And as will become apparent later , provided a
firm foundation for subsequent work within the
context of the functionalist paradigm.
273
??????? ?? ????? ???? ????? ??, ?????? ???
??????? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ????????
??????????? ????? ???? ???.
274
Durkheims sociology thus reflects a power full
predilection for order as the predominant force
in social affairs.
275
????? ????? ???????? ????? ????? ?????? ??? ??
??? ?? ????? ?? ????? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ???.
276
Judged by the yardstick by which we have defined
the sociology of regulation (a concern for the
status quo , social order , consensus ,
social integration and cohesion , solidarity
, need satisfaction and activity).
277
??? ?????? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ????? ????? ??
????? ????? ????? ???? (???? ?? ??? ?????, ???
??????? ?????, ????? ??????? ? ?????? , ??????? ,
????? ???? , ? ??????) ???? ????? ??.
278
Durkheim emerges as a sociologist as a
sociologist of order and regulation par
excellence.
279
?? ???????? ????? ????? ??? ?? ???? ???? ?????
??? ?? ??? ? ??? ??? .
280
A fuller account of the origins of the
functionalist paradigm would call for the
analysis of the thought of a number of other
social theorists
281
????? ??? ?????? ?? ?????????? ???????? ?????????
, ????? ???? ????? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ???????
?? ?? ????.
282
Alfred Marshall , Max Weber , Vilfredo pareto ,
John Stuart Mill , George Simmel George Herbert
Mead and William James , among others
283
?? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ??????, ????
??? , ?????? ? ????? , ??? ??????? ??? , ??? ????
, ??? ????? ??? ? ?????? ???? ??????? ??????
?????.
284
All have a strong claim to be considered here
along with the founding fathers.
285
?? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ???????? ???? ???? ????
?????.
286
Burrell and Morgan conclude their discussion of
the foundations of the functionalist paradigm
here with a discussion of certain aspects of the
work of pareto.
287
???? ? ????? ?? ????? ??? ????? ????????
??????????? ?? ?? ????? ???? ?? ????? ??? ?????
?? ????? ?? ????.
288
Vilfredo pareto (1848 1923) came to sociology
from economics , with a view to supplementing the
scientific theories of economics , based on their
assumptions of logical and rational conduct ,
with a scientific theory of non-logical or
non-rational conduct
289
?????? ? ????? (1923 1848) ?? ?????? ?? ?? ????
????? ????? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ??? ????
?????? ?? ?? ????? ?? ????????? ????? ?????? ?
????? ???? ???. ?? ????? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ?
??? ????? ????? ???.
290
Among the main features of his work which are
relevant for comment here are the that after
establishing the extent and significance of the
non-logical in social affairs,
291
?? ????? ??? ???? ??? ????? ?? ??? ?? ?? ?????
??? ?? ????? ??? ????? ??? ?? ?? ??? ?? ?????
????? ? ????? ???????? ????????? ?? ???? ???????,
292
He proceeded to explain it terms of a social
systems model based upon the notion of
equilibrium.
293
????? ????? ???? ?? ?? ??? ??? ???? ??? ???????
?? ?? ????? ????? ??? ??? ??? ????? ???.
294
His view of society was that of a system of
interrelated parts which , though in a continual
state of surface flux , were also in a state of
unchanging equilibrium,
295
?????? ?? ???????????? , ?????? ?? ???? ????? ??
????? ?????? ?? ?? ??? ?? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ?
??? ????? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ??? ????? ?
?????? ????? ?????? ??? ?? ???? ???? ????.
296
In that move movements away from the equilibrium
position were counter balanced by changes tending
to restore it.
297
?? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ???? ?? ?? ???? ????? ??? ??
??? ????? ?? ???????? ?? ????? ?????????? ?? ???
???? ??? ????? ?? ??.
298
Pareto saw in the concept of equilibrium a useful
tool for understanding the complexities of social
life.
299
????? ?? ????? ????? ????? ????? ???? ???
?????????? ????? ??????? ?? ???.
300
As far as the development of the functionalist
paradigm is concerned , it is through the notion
of equilibrium that pare to has had most
influence.
301
?? ???? ?? ?? ????? ???? ????? ????????
??????????? ????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ???? ?????
????? ??????? ???? ?? ???? ??? ???.
302
Where as it was implicit in many earlier social
theories, after pare to it became much more
explicit as a guiding principle.
303
?? ???? ?? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ???
??????? ????? ?? ????? ???? ? ??? ???? ???, ???
?? ????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ?? ???
?????? ???? ?????.
304
The distinction which he drew between the logical
and non-logical elements in human conduct has ,
as we shall see , also been of some importance.
305
?????? ?? ???? ?????? ???, ?????? ?? ?? ??? ?????
????? ? ????????? ????? ?????? ???? ?? ??? ??
????? ???? ??? ???????? ???? ???.
306
The structure of the paradigm
307
?????? ???????? ???????????
308
The functionalist paradigm has provided the
dominant framework for academic sociology in the
twentieth century and accounts for by far the
largest proportion of theory and research in the
field of organization studies.
309
???????? ??????????? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ?????
???????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ????? ???? ? ??????? ???
????? ?? ? ??????? ?? ???? ????????????? ?? ???
?? ??? ?????? ???? ???.
310
Its structure reflects the dominant influence of
sociological positivism , as described in the
previous section,
311
?????? ??? ???????? ?????? ?? ??? ??? ????? ????
??, ???? ???? ????? ????? ????? ????? ?? ????? ??
????.
312
Fused at its junction with the interpretive
paradigm with elements of German idealism.
313
??? ??? ????? ??? ?? ???????? ?????????? , ??????
?? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ?? ????? ?? ???.
314
It contains many separate schools of thought ,
each occupying a distinctive relationships one
with another.
315
??? ???????? ???? ????? ???? ????? ? ??????? ??
??? ?? ?? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ????.
316
Burrell and Morgan traced these relationships in
terms of the two dimensions which define the
paradigm
317
???? ? ????? ?? ????? ??? ????? ?? ??? ?? ????
?? ??? ???????? ?? ????? ?? ???? ????????.
318
To facilitate this task , they identified four
broad categories of functionalist thought and
addressed each in turn.
319
???? ????? ?? ??? ??? , ???? ???? ????? ??? ??
???? ??????????? ?? ???? ???? ? ?? ????? ?? ?? ??
???? ????????.
320
They describe them as (a) Social system theory,
(b) interactionism and social action theory,
(c) integrative theory,
(d) objectivism.
321
??? ???? ????? ????????? ???) ????? ????
???????, ?) ?????????? ? ?????
??? ??????? ?) ????? ????? ???

?)???? ?????
322
Each of these broad categories occupies a
distinctive position within the paradigm, as
illustrated in figure 3.3 social system theory
represents a direct development of sociological
positivism in its most pure form.
323
???? ??? ??? ?? ?????? 3 3 ???? ???? ??? ???
????? ????? ??????? ????? ?????? ????? ?????
????? ?????? ?? ? ????? ???? ??? ?? ????? ?? ???.
324
Adopting mechanical and biological analogies for
the study of social affairs , it is most clearly
represented in the schools of thought described
as structural functionalism and system theory.
325
??? ????? ?? ??????? ??????? ? ????? ?? ?? ?????
???? ??????? ??????? ???, ?? ???? ?? ????? ????
?? ?? ???? ???? ??????????? ??????? ? ?????
?????? ????? ?????? ???.
326
Interactionism and social action theory is the
category of thought which directly combines
elements of sociological positivism and German
Iealism and as such can be considered as
defining the most subjective boundary of the
paradigm.
327
?????????? ? ????? ??? ??????? ????? ??? ???? ???
?? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ????? ????? ? ???? ?????
?????? ?? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ???? ? ?? ??? ?????
?? ????? ?? ????? ???? ??????? ??? ?????????
??????????? ?? ??? ????? ???.
328
Integrative theory occupies a central location
within the paradigm, seeking to bridge the gap
between social system theory and interactionism.
329
????? ????? ??? ????? ????? ???????? ?? ?? ???
?????? ?? ??? ? ????? ??? ???? ???? ????? ?????
??????? ?????? ????? ?? ?? ???.
330
It is not fully committed to either of these two
categories it takes something from both and
contributes something to both.
331
??? ????? ?? ??? ?? ?? ??? ?? ????? ?????? ???
??? ????, ???? ?? ?? ?? ??? ???? ?? ???? ? ????
?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ????? ?? ?????.
332
It is truly a brand of theory characteristic of
the middle ground, and is reflected in the
schools of thought which we describe as conflict
functionalism , morphogenic systems theory ,
Balus theory of exchange and power , Mertonian
theory of social and cultural structure.
333
??? ????? ?? ???? ????? ?? ??? ?? ???????? ?? ???
???? ? ?? ?? ????? ???? ?? ?? ?? ???? ??
??????????? ????, ????? ?????? ???? ???? ?????
?????? ? ???? ???? ? ????? ?????? ??????? ? ?????
????? ????? ?? ???? ????? ??? ???.
334
The category of thought which we describe as
objectivism 9comprising behaviourism and
abstracted empiricism) is very closely related to
social system theory,
335
????? ?? ?? ???? ?? ?? ?? ????? ???? ????? ?? ??
??? ?? ???? (?? ??? ???? ?????????? ? ????? ?????
??????? ???) ?????? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ????
??????? ????.
336
In that it again is firmly committed to the
tradition of sociological positivism.
337
?? ??? ??? ?? ????? ?? ?? ???? ????? ????? ?????
?????? ?????? ?????? ???.
338
Burrell and Morgan identify it as a separate
category, in recognition of the fact that it
reflects a particularly extreme form of
commitment to the models and methods of the
natural sciences.
339
???? ? ????? ?? ??? ??? ??? ????? ?? ?? ???? ??
????? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ??? ?????? ???? ??
??????? ?? ????? ? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ??? ?????
?????? ?? ???.
340
Behaviourism, for example, derives from
physiological models employed in psychology
341
???? ????, ?????????? ???????? ????? ?? ?? ????
????? ?? ??? ?? ??? ????? ?? ???.
342
Abstracted empiricism is dominated by
quantitative methodologies which often have no
distinctly social qualities.
343
????? ????? ??????? ?? ??? ?????? ??? ?????????
??? ?? ???? ?? ?????? ???? ???????? ???????
???? ?? ?????.
344
We commence our analysis with a consideration of
social system theory
345
????? ??? ?? ?? ?? ??? ????? ????? ????? ???????
???? ?? ????.
346
Social System Theory
347
????? ????? ???????
348
Under this heading we consider two schools of
thought which, in many respects, have provided
the dominant framework for analysis in
contemporary sociology structural functionalism
and system theory.
349
??? ??? ????? ?? ?? ???? ???? ?? ?? ?? ?????? ??
???? ??????? ???? ???? ?? ????? ????? ????? ?????
?? ????? ????? ?? ???? ?? ??????? ?? ???????????
??????? ? ????? ??????.
350
Both have had a particularly important impact
upon the field of organizational analysis.
351
?? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ??????? ????? ???.
352
The terms structural functionalism and system
Theory are often seen as interchangeable.
353
???? ??? ?????? ????? ??????? ? ????? ??????
?????? ?? ??? ?? ?? ??? ?? ????.
354
Whilst there is some measure of justification in
equating the two as far as the majority of
current systems applications are concerned,
355
????? ?? ???? ?? ???? ?????????? ???? ???????,
??????? ???? ?? ?? ???? ?? ????? ???? ???? ??? ??
???? ???
356
To do so represent an oversimplification, since
systems theory is consistent with theoretical
perspectives which extend beyond the confines of
the functionalist paradigm.
357
??? ??? ??? ?? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ?? ?? ???,
???? ????? ??????? ?? ????????? ???? ??????? ????
?? ????? ?? ?????? ??? ???????? ???????????? ??
???.
358
However, these remain largely undeveloped at the
present time.
359
?? ?? ???, ??? ???????? ?? ??? ???? ?? ????? ???
?????? ???? ????? ???.
360
We trace the development of the two perspectives
and the relationships which exist between them,
361
?? ????? ??? ?? ?????? ? ????? ???? ???? ?? ?????
????
362
Arguing that the similarities only exist if they
drew upon a similar analogy, that of the
biological organism.
363
???????? ?????? ??? ?? ??? ???????? ???? ?? ?????
?? ???? ?? ???? ?? ?? ?? ???? ????? ???? ????
???????? ????? ????? ?????
364
Whereas structural functionalism inevitably draw
upon this analogy, systems theory is in principle
consistent with the use of many others.
365
?? ???? ?? ???????????? ??????? ?????? ?? ???
???? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ??
?????? ??????? ???? ??? ??????? ????.
366
Structural Functionalism
367
?????? ????? ???????
368
It is through the notion of structural
functionalism that the use of the biological
analogy in the tradition of comte, spencer and
Durkheim has had its major impact upon
sociological thought.
369
??????????? ??????? ?????? ??? ?? ?? ???? ??
??????? ?? ???? ????? ?? ??? ??? , ?????? , ? ??
?????? ??????? ????? ??? ?? ?? ???? ????? ??????
?????? ???.
370
Building upon the concepts of holism,
interrelationship between parts, structure,
functions and needs, the biological analogy has
been developed in diverse ways to produce a
social science perspective firmly rooted in the
sociology of regulation.
371
???? ????? ?? ??????? ?? ?????? ?? ???? , ?????
?????? ???? ????? , ?????? , ???????? ? ???? , ??
?????? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ??????? ??
?????? ?? ????? ????? ??? ??? ???? ???? ?????
????? ???.
372
The major distinction commonly drawn between
approaches revolves around the issue of level of
analysis
373
????? ???? ?? ?? ?????? ??? ???????? ????? ?? ???
??? ????? ??? ????? ??? ?? ???
374
Wether the focus in functional analysis is on the
part or the whole, on the individual institution
or the social system.
375
???? ????? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ??? ??? ????
?? ??? ?? , ????? ???? ???? ???? ?? ?? ??? ?????
???????.
376
In addition to this distinction, however, it is
also desirable to draw attention to at least two
other lines of development.
377
??? , ?? ??? ?? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ??? ?????, ??
????? ?? ???? ???? ???? ?? ??? ???????? ??? ????
???.
378
The first follows on from Radcliffe Browns
focus on structure in the tradition of social
morphology.
379
?????? ???? ?? ????? ?? ????? ??? ?? ??????? ????
?? ??? ???? ????? ??????? ?? ?????? ???? ???.
380
In defiance (or at least ignorance) of his
warning that the social structure as a whole can
only be observed in its functioning , the notion
of structure has become increasingly reified as
some social theorists sought identify its key
elements
381
?? ???????? ?? ????? (?? ????? ?????? ?????)
????? ?? ?????? ????? ?????? ??????? ?? ?????
?? ?? ?? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ?? ???? ?????? ???
,????? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ?? ????? ???????
??????? ?? ?? ??? ????? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ???
?? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ???
382
The search for structure has led to an
increasingly hard and indiscriminate application
of the models and methods of the natural sciences
to the study of social phenomena.
383
????? ???? ?????? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ??????
???? ? ?? ???? ? ???? ????? ? ???? ??? ???? ?????
?? ?????? ????? ??? ??????? ??? ???
384
The second line of development has focused upon
what Radcliffe Brown called the problems of
social physiology , that is , upon explaining
the way in which social systems function.
385
????? ???? ???? ?? ???? ????? ???? ?? ???????
????? ?? ?? ????? ????? ?? ????????? ???????
?? ????, ???? ????? ???? ?? ?? ??????? ? ???????
?????? ?? ??? ?? ????.
386
For the most part these studies have drawn
heavily upon the organismic analogy, attempting
to understand the functioning of social systems
in terms of system needs or conditions of
existence.
387
??? ??????? ?????? ?? ??? ???? ????????? ?????
????? ? ???? ?? ???? ?? ?????? ???????? ???????
?? ?? ??? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ???? ?????
??????.
388
This is particularly evident, for example, in
the work of Talcott Parsons and his analysis of
the social system ( 1951 ).
389
???? ????? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ????????? ???
???? ??????? ?? ?? ?? ???? ??????? ????? ????
?????? ?? ???.
390
Parsons takes as his Point of departure the
system as a whole and analyses the conditions
necessary for its survival ,functioning evolution
and change.
391
??????? ???? ??? ??? ?? ???? ?? ????? ?? ??
???? ???? ? ?????? ?? ????? ?? ??? ??
???? ????? ??????? ????? ? ????? ?? ????? ??
????.
392
As Rocher notes ,in Parsons Perspective the term
function refers to various solutions to a
particular complex of problems that a system can
adopt in order to survive,
393
?????? ?? ???? ?? ????? ?? ?????? ??????? ????
?????? ????? ???? ?? ??? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ????
?? ?????? ?? ?? ???? ??? ???? ??? ?? ????? ????
?? ??????.
394
And survival here includes persistence, evolution
and transmutation.
395
? ???? ?? ??? ????? ???? ???????? ?