The Age of Modernity and Anxiety, 1894-1914

1
Chapter 24 The Age of Modernity and Anxiety,
1894-1914
2

• Toward the Modern Consciousness Intellectual and
  Cultural Developments
• Developments in Sciences The Emergence of a New
  Physics
• Marie Curie (1867-1934) and Pierre Curie
  (1859-1906)
• Radiation
• Atoms
• Max Planck (1858-1947)
• Energy radiated discontinuously
• Albert Einstein (1879-1955)
• Theory of relativity
• Four dimensional space-time continuum
• Energy of the atom

3

• Toward a New Understanding of the Irrational
• Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900)
• Glorifies the irrational
• Blame on Christianity
• Henri Bergson (1859-1941)
• Reality the life force
• Georges Sorel (1847-1922)
• Destroy capitalist society
• New socialist society

4

• Sigmund Freud and the Emergence of Psychoanalysis
• The Interpretation of Dreams, 1900
• The unconscious
• Repression
• Inner life
• Id, ego, and superego
• The Impact of Darwinism Social Darwinism and
  Racism
• Social Darwinism
• Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)
• Societies are organisms that evolve
• Nationalism
• Racism
• Houston Stewart Chamberlain

5

• The Attack on Christianity and the Response of
  the Churches
• Anticlericalism
• Ernst Renan (1823-1892), Life of Jesus
• Questions historical accuracy of Bible
• Pope Pius IX, 1846-1878
• Syllabus of Errors, 1864
• Modernism
• Pope Leo XIII, 1878-1903
• De Rerum Novarum, 1891
• Salvation Army

6

• The Culture of Modernity
• Naturalism and Symbolism in Literature
• Émile Zola (1840-1902)
• Naturalism
• Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910), War and Peace
• Fydor Dostoevsky (1821-1881)
• Loss of spiritual belief
• Crime and Punishment, The Brothers Karamazov
• Symbolism
• External world is not real only a collection of
  symbols that reflect true reality of the human
  mind

7

• Modernism in the Arts
• Impressionism
• Paint the countryside directly
• Changing effects of light
• Claude Monet (1840-1926)
• Berthe Morisot (1841-1895)
• Post-Impressionism
• Light and color with structure and form
• Paul Cézanne ((1839-1906)
• Vincent van Gogh (1853-1890)

• Art a spiritual experience

• Impact of photography on art

• Pablo Picasso (1881-1973)

• Cubism

• Abstract Expressionism

8

• Modernism in Music
• Edvard Grieg (1843-1907)
• Nationalism
• Impressionism
• Claude Debussy (1862-1918)

• Moods and sensations

• Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971)

• Ballet

• Politics New Directions and New Uncertainties
• Movement for Womens Rights
• Custody and property

9

• Suffrage
• Millicent Fawcett (1847-1929)
• Emmeline Pankhurst (1858-1928)
• Womens Social an Political Union
• Publicity
• The New Woman
• Maria Montessori (1870-1952)
• New teaching materials

10

• Jews within the European Nation-State
• Anti-Semitism
• Christian Socialisms Racism
• Case of Captain Alfred Dreyfus
• Karl Luegar of Vienna
• Pogroms of eastern Europe
• Theodor Herzl (1860-1904)
• The Jewish State
• Zionism
• The Transformation of Liberalism Great Britain
  and Italy
• Trade Unions
• Britains Labour Party
• Socialism by evolution

11

• David Lloyd George (1863-1945)
• Benefits for the workers
• Increased tax burden on the wealthy
• Transformation of the idea of liberalism
• Italy
• Giovanni Giolitti
• Transformismo
• Growing Tensions in Germany
• William II (1888-1918)
• Military and industrial power
• Social Democratic party
• Conflict of tradition and modernization

12

• Industrialization and Revolution in Imperial
  Russia
• Sergei Witte (1848-1915), Minister of Finance
• Railroad, Tans-Siberian
• Protective tariffs
• Steel and coal industries
• Nicholas II, 1894-1917
• Marxist Social Democratic Party
• Revolution of 1905
• Russo-Japanese War, 1904-1905
• Port Arthur, February 8, 1904
• Impact of the war on poor Russians

13

• Bloody Sunday, January 9, 1905
• Revolt
• General strike, October 1905
• October Manifesto

• Constitutional monarchy

• Curtailment of power of the Duma, 1907
• Rise of the United States
• Shift to an industrial nation, 1860-1914
• 9 percent own 71 percent of wealth
• American Federation of Labor
• 8.4 percent of industrial labor

14

• Progressive Era
• Reform
• Ineffective state laws result in federal
  legislation
• Woodrow Wilson, 1913-1921
• Growth of Canada
• The New Imperialism
• Causes of the New Imperialism
• Nationalism
• Competition among European nations
• Social Darwinism and racism
• Religious humanitarianism, White mans burden
• Economics
• Marxist interpretation

15
Africa in 1914 1. By 1880 there were only
pockets of European penetration into Africa,
amounting to perhaps only ten percent of the
continent. 2. France began its activities in
Africa with movement into Algeria in 1830 but it
was not until 1879 that French civilian rule was
establish and substantial numbers of colonists
were settled. 3. British and French penetration
into Egypt came as a consequence of the desire of
the Ottoman governors Muhammad Ali and his
grandson Ismail to build a state along western
lines. Their modernization policies attracted
substantial European investment and by 1876 Egypt
owed foreign bondholders 450 million. When it
was clear Egypt could no longer pay the debt,
France and Britain forced the appointment of
their own commissioners to oversee Egyptian
finances. A nationalist reaction was capped by
bloody anti-European riots in 1882. Britain
responded militarily and not only crushed the
uprising but established direct British control
which lasted from 1883 until 1922. 4. In
southern Africa, the British seized the Dutch
settlement of Capetown in 1795 and made the
presence permanent in 1806. The Dutch farmers,
Boers, resented the British and finally migrated
north on the Great Trek in 1835. Eventually the
Boers formed their own states but hostilities
still existed and the two sides fell into war in
1899. The Boer War lasted until 1902 and ended
with the defeat of the Boers. By 1910, the Boer
states were integrated into the Union of South
Africa. 5. The scramble for Africa was set off
by the activities of Leopold II of Belgium
(1865-1909) whose agents were exploiting the
region along the Congo River. The Belgian
activity alarmed the French who had signed
treaties of protection in 1880 with Africans
north of the Congo. Bismarck recognized the
implications of the Belgian and British
activities in Africa and called an international
conference on Africa in 1884 to set the rules for
the occupation of Africa. Claims would now have
to be based on "effective occupation." 6.
German involvement in Africa began in 1884 when
it created territorial protectorates over Togo,
Cameroons, Southwest Africa, and German East
Africa. France pressed south from Algeria, east
from its forts on the Senegal coast, and north
from the Congo River. Britain pushed south from
Egypt into the Sudan where they were temporarily
halted at Khartoum by fiercely independent
Muslims in 1885. The Muslim resistance was
crushed in 1898 at Omdurman. Britain continued
to push down the Nile to Fashoda that was held by
the French. Unwilling to fight, France withdrew
leaving the Sudan to Britain. 7. Only Liberia,
protected by the United States, and Ethiopia,
with western arms and tactics, remained free from
European control. Questions 1. How did Britain
and Belgium set off the scramble for Africa? 2.
What were the advantages

• Africa in 1914

16

• The Creation of Empires
• Scramble for Africa
• Cape Colony
• Afrikaners
• Great Trek, 1835

• Orange Free State

• Transvaal

• Cape Colony seizes Transvaal, 1877
• Boer War, 1899-1902
• Cecil Rhodes (1853-1902)
• Cape to Cairo
• Union of South Africa, 1910

17

• Portuguese
• French
• British in Egypt
• Leopold II, 1865-1909
• International Association for the Exploration and
  Civilization of Central Africa, 1876
• Congo
• French reaction is to move into territory north
  of the Congo River
• By 1914 on Liberia and Ethiopia remained
  independent

18
Asia in 1914 1. Although European contacts with
the East dated from the sixteenth century, there
were restrictions. China had limited western
trade to the area of Canton-Macao and the
Japanese after 1639 restricted western commerce
to only the Dutch who were permitted one ship a
year to a tiny island off the commercial port of
Nagasaki. 2. Expanding at the expense of the
Ottomans, Russia had occupied the area of the
Caspian Sea by 1881 and in 1885 was in Turkistan.
The appearance of the Russians on the northern
borders of Persia and Afghanistan worried the
British who were concerned about protecting their
Indian territories. In 1907 Britain and Russia
agreed to make Afghanistan a buffer and divide
Persia into two spheres of influence. Blocked by
the British in western Asia, Russia turned its
interest to eastern Asia. By 1860 it had
occupied Manchuria and in 1898 won a twenty-five
year lease for Port Arthur. Conflicting
aspirations over Korea, however, brought war with
Japan in 1904. Defeated in 1905, Russia had to
recognize Korea as a Japanese protectorate. This
ended Russian expansion in Asia. 3. The opening
of China in the nineteenth century was the result
of the government's inability to withstand the
pressures of the West. Because the Europeans had
few products desired by the Chinese, there was a
significant imbalance of trade. This was altered
when the British initiated commerce in illegal
Indian opium. In 1839 when the Chinese tried to
stop the trade, Britain went to war. The peace
in 1842 opened new ports and forced China to cede
Hong Kong to Britain. Other western states
demanded similar concessions. More ports were
opened after military operations by the French
and British in 1858-1860. In 1860 a helpless
China lost Manchuria north of the Amur River to
Russia. After a two year war, China in 1885 had
to allow France to establish a protectorate over
all of Indochina except Siam. Following the
Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), the powers of
Russia, Britain, France, Germany, and Japan
partitioned China into "spheres of interest." In
1898, Britain leased lands opposite Hong Kong and
then a naval base at Wei-Hai-Wei opposite Port
Arthur. Finally, in 1912 after an indigenous
uprising, the Manchu government was toppled and
China became a republic. 4. The presence of the
United States in Asia stemmed from the opening of
Japan in 1853 and the defeat of Spain in 1898
whereby the Philippines were acquired. When the
United States did not grant independence a revolt
broke out. It took three years and 60,000 troops
to pacify the Philippines. 5. The westernization
of Japan under the Meiji led to adventures in
imperialism. In the Sino-Japanese War
(1894-1895) victorious Japan won Chinese
recognition of the independence of Korea, the
cession of Formosa, the Pescadores Islands, and
the southern projection of Manchuria (though
eventually forced to give it up). Later Japan
would gain concessions in Fukien opposite
Formosa. After the Russo-Japanese War
(1904-1905) Japan annexed southern Sakhalin
Island and gained economic concessions in
Manchuria. 6. In Shanghai, following the Opium
War and the granting of new trading posts, the
influx of foreigners created an International
Settlement controlled jointly by Britain and the
United States while France had a separate
settlement in the city. Question 1. Why was
China unable to stop Western advances on its
territory?

• Asia 1914

19

• Asia in the Age of Imperialism
• James Cook to Australia, 1768-1771
• British East India Company
• Empress of India bestowed on Queen Victoria, 1876
• Russian expansion
• Siberia
• Reach Pacific coast, 1637
• Press south into the crumbling Ottoman Empire
• Persia and Afghanistan
• Korea and Manchuria
• British acquisition of Hong Kong
• Spheres of Influence
• United States Open Door policy for China, 1899

20

• Japan
• Matthew Perry opens Japan, 1853-1854
• Southeast Asia
• Pacific Islands
• Asian Responses to Imperialism
• China
• Boxer Rebellion, 1900-1901, Society of Harmonious
  Fists
• Sun Yat-sen (1866-1925)
• Fall of the Manchu dynasty, 1912, Republic of
  China

21

• Japan
• Samurai
• Meiji Mutsuhito, 1867-1912
• Meiji Era
• Westernization of military and industry
• India
• British control results in peace and honest
  government
• Extreme poverty
• Indian National Congress, 1883

22

• International Rivalry and the Coming of War
• The Bismarckian System
• Alliances to preserve the new German state
• Problems in the Balkans
• Disintegration of the Ottoman Empire
• Rivalries of Austria and Russia
• Serbia and Montenegro attack Ottoman Empire, 1876

23

• Russia attacks the Ottomans, 1876
• Treaty of San Stefano, 1878
• Congress of Berlin, 1878

• Serbia, Montenegro and Romania independent

• Bosnia and Herzegovina become Austrian
  protectorate

• Triple Alliance, 1882 Germany, Austria, Italy
• Reinsurance Treaty between Russia and Germany,
  1887
• Dismissal of Bismarck, 1890

24
The Balkans in 1878 1. The continued
disintegration of the Ottoman Empire in the
nineteenth century made the Balkans increasingly
vulnerable, especially to Austria and Russia.
For Russia, the eastern Balkans represented the
shortest overland route to Istanbul and the
straits. Austria saw the area as a fertile
ground for expansion. In 1876 Serbia and
Montenegro (nominally under Turkish control)
declared war on the Turks but were defeated.
This was followed by a Russian declaration of war
and defeat of the Turks. The Treaty of San
Stefano in 1878 created a large Bulgarian state
that became a Russian satellite. This altering
of the balance of power in the Balkans,
especially the potential for Russian control of
the Dardanelles Strait, prompted the other
European states to call a congress to discuss the
treaty. 2. The Russian treaty was undone in 1878
by the Europeans meeting in Berlin. The Congress
of Berlin decided to reduce the size of Bulgaria
by two-thirds and deny it access to the Aegean
Sea. The remainder of its territory was returned
to Turkey. The states of Serbia, Montenegro, and
Romania were recognized as independent. Bosnia
and Herzegovina were placed under the protection
of Austria, but not to be annexed. Russia was
naturally angered by the proceedings. It was
especially upset that ally Germany had done
nothing to protect Russia and thus withdrew from
the Three Emperors' League. 3. All of the Balkan
states were upset with the Berlin settlement.
Especially resentful were Montenegro and Serbia
that were angered by the Austrian occupation of
Slavic Bosnia and Herzegovina. 4. In 1885
Bulgaria, which had been granted some degree of
autonomy by the congress, seized the Turkish
province of East Rumelia. The independent
Kingdom of Bulgaria was proclaimed in
1908. Questions 1. Why was there sparing over
the Balkans by the European powers? 2. Why were
some European states concerned about the
provisions of the Treaty of San Stefano? 3. How
were the conditions of the Balkans in the late
nineteenth century shaping future events of the
early twentieth century?

• The Balkans in 1878

25
The Balkans in 1913 1. By the beginning of the
twentieth century, nationalism was on the rise in
the Balkans. The Serbs, a Slavic people, looked
to Slavic Russia for support in their political
aspirations. In order to block Serbian expansion
and at the same time take advantage of Russian
impotency following the revolution of 1905,
Austria in 1908 formally annexed Bosnia and
Herzegovina which it had occupied and
administered since 1878 (see Acetate 78, Map
24.3A). Serbia, its hopes dashed of taking the
territory for itself, was outraged. Supported by
Russia, Serbia prepared for war. Germany warned
Russia that it must accept the annexation or face
war. Afraid to risk a confrontation at this
time, Russia backed down, thereby forcing Serbia
to do the same. 2. In 1912 the Balkan League
consisting of Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, and
Greece defeated the Turks in the First Balkan
War. Taken from the Turks were Macedonia and
Albania. The allies, however, could not decide
now to divide the conquered territory and soon
fell to fighting. The Second Balkan War broke
out in 1913 when Greece, Serbia, Romania, and
Turkey united to defeat Bulgaria. In the peace,
Bulgaria obtained only a small portion of
Macedonia while the rest was divided between
Serbia and Greece. Significantly, Austria
intervened in the Second Balkan War to force
Serbia to give up Albania which had become
independent. Questions 1. Why were Austria and
Serbia at odds over the Balkans? 2. What was the
role of nationalism in the Balkan wars? 3. What
kind of resentments were building in the Balkans
that could kindle a third Balkan war?

• The Balkans in 1913

26

• New Directions and New Crises
• Military alliance of France and Russia, 1894
• Splendid isolation of Britain
• Concerns about Germany
• German navy
• Entente Cordiale, 1904 Britain and France
• First Moroccan Crisis, 1905-1906
• Triple Entente, 1907 Britain, France, Russia
• Crisis in the Balkans, 1908-1913
• Austria annexes Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1908
• Serbian protest, Russian support of Serbia
• First Balkan War, 1912
• Second Balkan War, 1913