Identifying Different Types of Research

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Identifying Different Types of Research

• (Paradigms) Intended Use, Treatment of Time
  Units of Measurement

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Ways of using literature reviews to develop ideas
for topics

• Literature review Survey of research done on
  your topic replicate a project (exactly or with
  variations)
• previous research may inspire you (Baxter
  Babbie, p. 20), for example
• explore unexpected findings
• follow suggestions for further research
• extend explanation or theory to new topic or
  setting or context
• challenge findings-- try to refute conclusions
• look for new variables, relationships not treated
  in literature

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Note incomplete literature coverage Lost
Science in the Third World---
Scientific American (1995) Vol 277, No. 7.
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Recall Research Paradigms

• Sets of shared patterns in a scholarly community
  about what constitutes worthwhile research
  (Thomas Kuhn, The structure of scientific
  revolutions)
• What problems are worth investigating?
• What constitutes an answer?
• Different views on how approaches are grouped

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Developing research topics
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Identifying Styles of Research Example of
Quantitative vs. Qualitative Approaches(common
about 20-30 yrs ago but still used)Neuman
(2000 16)
Quantitative vs. Qualitative

Objective
Subjective
Variables
Processes and events
Reliability
Authenticity
Value-Free
Explicitly Stated Values
Independent of Context
Aware of Context
Many cases or subjects
Few cases or subjects
Statistical Analysis
Other qualities
Detached Researcher
Involved Researcher
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Another idea Four Paradigms (Burrell Morgan)
Conflict/radical change

radical humanist radical structuralist inter
pretive functionalist
subjective
objective
Order/stability/regulation
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Dimensions of Research
Purpose of Study Intended Use of Study Treatment of Time in Study Data Collection Technique (examples of common types associated with approaches)
Exploratory Descriptive Explanatory Basic Applied -Action -Impact -Need Assessment Evaluation Cross-sectional Longitudinal -Panel -Time series -Cohort -Case Study -Trend study Quantitative (survey, content analysis, existing statistics, experiment) Qualitative (field research, historical comparative, etc.)
Neuman (2000 37)
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Exploratory Research

• When not much is known about topic
• Surprises (e.g. Serendipity effect)
• Familiarity with basic concerns and develop a
  picture
• To explore feasibility of additional research
• To develop questions

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Descriptive Research

• Focuses on who, what and how
• Background information, to stimulate new ways of
  thinking, to classify types, etc.

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Explanatory Research

• To test theories, predictions, etc
• Idea of advancing knowledge

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Intended Uses of Study

• Basic or fundamental research
• Depends on paradigm
• Inner logic relation to theoretical or
  methodological issues in field
• Concerns scholarly community
• Applied research (practical applications)
• action research (We can make a difference)
• evaluation research (Did it work?)
• Methods
• formative (built in)
• summative (final outcomes)
• Research goals
• needs assessment (Who needs what?)
• cost-benefit analysis (What is it worth?)
• social impact assessment (What will be the
  effects?)

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Treatment of Time

• Cross-sectional
• (one point in time)
• Longitudinal
• (more than one point in time)

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Main Types of Longitudinal Studies

• Panel study
• Example same people, at least twice
• 1990 2000
• 40-49 40-49
• 50-59 50-59
• 60-69 60-69
• 70-79 70-79
• 80

Source Babbie (1995 99)
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Main Types of Longitudinal Studies (contd)

• Cohort analysis
• same category of people (but not exactly same
  individuals) at at least two times or over a
  period
• Not necessarily age cohorts, can be groups of
  people, (ex. class of 2007)
• Term usually used for people but principles can
  also apply to non-humans ex. implementation of
  homeland security policies 9/11 2 years and 5
  years after, etc

Source Babbie (1995 99)
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Main Types of Longitudinal Studies (contd)

• Time-series
• same type of info., not exactly same people,
  multiple time periods, e.g. Same age groups
• 1990 2000
• 41-50 41-50
• 51-60 51-60
• 61-70 61-70
• 71-80 71-80

Source Babbie (1995 99)
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Main Types of Longitudinal Studies (contd)

• Time-series (other examples)
• same type of info., not exactly same people,
  multiple time periods, e.g. Same place
• 1985 2000
• Capital Hill residents Capital Hill residents

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Main Types of Cross-sectional Studies (contd)

• One point in time (but techniques exist to
  convert cross-sectional data for use in
  longitudinal studies)

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Duration (in years)
15
10
5
1970
75
80
85
90
Year (Date)
Source http//demog.berkeley.edu/wilmoth/mortalit
y/lexis.html (May 15, 2000)
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Case Studies

• Both cross-sectional and longitudinal types, but
  often over duration of time

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Units of Analysis (Individual)
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Units of Analysis (Families)
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Units of analysis( Households)
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Artifacts as Units of Analysis

• Non-human elements (like technologies) as
  subjects (Actor-Network Theory) in communication
  studies
• Communications media (radio, television, mobile
  phones etc)
• Media Messages Uses

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Importance of Choosing Appropriate Unit of
Analysis

• example Ecological Fallacy (cheating)

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Ecological Fallacy (cheating Box 6.3)
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Ecological Fallacy (cheating Box 6.3)
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Ecological Fallacy Reductionism
ecological fallacy--wrong unit of analysis
(too high) reductionism--wrong unit of
analysis (too low)
reductionism--wrong unit of analysis (too low)