AP Macroeconomics

1
AP Macroeconomics

• Demand and Supply

2
Price and Quantity

• Price the amount of money paid for an
  economic good/service
• Ex. A gallon of gasoline has a price of 3.00
• Quantity the amount of items
• Ex. If I buy a dozen eggs, then the quantity is
  12 eggs

3
Demand

• Consumers willingness and ability to buy an item
  at a given price
• Willingness means that buyers must want the item
• Ability means that buyers must have the financial
  resources to afford the item
• It is important to understand that demand does
  not refer to a numerical amount but instead to a
  behavior.

4
The Law of Demand

• The price of an item determines the quantity
  demanded
• The lower the price the higher the quantity
  demanded
• When goods/services are cheap, I tend to buy more
• The higher the price the lower the quantity
  demanded
• When goods/services are expensive, I tend to buy
  less
• Therefore, the price of a good/service is
  inversely related with the quantity demanded

5
The Law of Demand

• In addition to price, there are many factors that
  influence how many units of a good consumers
  purchase.
• In order to predict how consumers respond to
  changes in one variable (price), we must assume
  that all other relevant factors are held constant.

6
The Law of Demand

• At the heart of the law of demand is a consumers
  willingness and ability to pay the going price.
• If the consumer becomes more willing, or more
  able to consume a good, then either the price has
  fallen or one of the external factors has changed.

7
3 Reasons Why the Law of Demand Exists

• Income Effect The change in quantity demanded
  resulting from a change in the consumers
  purchasing power (or real income).
• When things are expensive, money buys less
• When things are cheap, money buys more
• Substitution Effect The change in quantity
  demanded resulting from a change in the price of
  one good relative to the price of other goods.
• When apples are expensive and their substitutes
  (pears) are relatively cheap, I buy fewer apples
  and more pears

8
3 Reasons Why the Law of Demand Exists

• 3. Diminishing Marginal Utility
• Each additional unit of an item purchased gives
  less marginal utility (happy points) than the
  previous unit. Therefore, the only way I will buy
  more is if the price is lower.
• Ex. When Im hungry, I typically will buy 2
  breakfast tacos. The reason I dont buy a third
  taco is because the marginal utility of the third
  taco is less than the price of the taco. But, if
  the price of the taco is less than the marginal
  utility of the taco, then I will buy the third
  taco

9
Demand Schedule

• Coach Bs Demand for Breakfast Tacos

Price Quantity
2.00 0
1.50 1
1.00 2
0.50 3
Notice that Coach B is obeying the law of demand.
Now thats making a good choice!!!!
10
Demand Curve
Coach Bs Demand for Breakfast Tacos
P
Price Quantity
2.00 0
1.50 1
1.00 2
0.50 3
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
D
Q
0
3
2
1
11
Changes in Demand

• Increase in Demand
• More quantity demanded at all prices
• Demand Curve shifts ?
• Decrease in Demand
• Less quantity demanded at all prices
• Demand Curve shifts ?

12
Increase in Demand

P
D1
D
Q
13
Decrease in Demand

P
D
D1
Q
14
Demand

• Determinants of demand influence both the
  willingness and ability of the consumer to
  purchase units of the good or service.
• In addition to price the following variables
  account for the total demand for a good.

15
Changes in DemandT.R.I.P.E.

• The following cause the entire demand curve to
  shift
• Tastes and Preferences
• Related Goods (Complements Substitutes)
• Income
• Population
• Expectations of future price changes

16
Changes in DemandT.R.I.P.E.

• Tastes and Preferences
• Preferences and tastes are affected by
  advertising, trends, health considerations, etc.
• Ex. Demand for dark chocolate has increased
  because research has recently shown that it has
  health benefits
• Ex. Demand for spinach decreased when the FDA
  discovered high concentrations of e. coli.

17
Changes in DemandT.R.I.P.E.

• Related Goods
• Complements goods/services used in conjunction
• Ex. When the price of gasoline increases the
  demand for its complement, Hummers, decreases.
• Ex. When the price of movie tickets decreases,
  the demand for theatre popcorn increases.
• Substitutes goods/services used in lieu of
  other goods/services
• Ex. When the price of gasoline increases, the
  demand for ethanol increases.
• Ex. When the price of movie tickets increases,
  the demand for DVDs increases.

18
Changes in DemandT.R.I.P.E.

• Income of consumers
• When consumers income increases
• Demand for normal goods/services increases
• Ex. More income means more demand for steak
• Demand for inferior goods/services decreases
• Ex. More income means less demand for Top Ramen
• When consumers income decreases
• Demand for normal goods/services decreases
• Ex. Less income means less demand for steak
• Demand for inferior goods/services increases
• Ex. Less income means more demand for Top Ramen

19
Changes in DemandT.R.I.P.E.

• Population
• More population more demand
• Ex. As Americas population grows so does the
  demand for housing
• Less population less demand
• Ex. As Japans population declines so does the
  demand for education (fewer Japanese schools)

20
Changes in DemandT.R.I.P.E.

• Expectations of future price changes
• If consumers expect prices to rise in the future,
  then demand increases now
• Ex. Prior to Hurricanes Katrina and Rita,
  consumers expected higher fuel prices and this
  caused demand for fuel to increase.
• If consumers expect prices to fall in the future,
  then demand decreases now
• Ex. If investors believe stock prices are going
  to decline, then demand for stocks decreases.

21
Supply

• Producers willingness and ability to sell a
  good/service
• Supply is not an amount but a behavior
• Holding all else equal, when the price of a good
  rises, suppliers increase their quantity supplied
  for that good.

22
The Law of Supply

• The price of an item determines the quantity
  supplied
• The lower the price the lower the quantity
  supplied
• When goods/services command a low price, I tend
  to produce less of them
• The higher the price the higher the quantity
  supplied
• When goods/services command a high price, I tend
  to produce more of them
• Therefore, the price of a good/service is
  directly related with the quantity supplied

23
The Reason for the Law of Supply

• The law of increasing marginal cost
• It is more costly to produce two than one.
  Therefore, I must collect a higher price if I am
  going to produce more.

24
Supply Schedule

• Taco Mucho Buenos Supply of Breakfast Tacos

Price Quantity
2.00 4
1.50 3
1.00 2
0.50 1
25
Supply Curve
Taco Mucho Buenos Supply of Breakfast Tacos

P
Price Quantity
2.00 4
1.50 3
1.00 2
0.50 1
S
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
4
3
2
1
Q
26
Changes in Supply

• Increase in Supply
• More quantity supplied at all prices
• Supply Curve shifts ?
• Decrease in Supply
• Less quantity supplied at all prices
• Supply Curve shifts ?

27
Increase in Supply

P
S
S1
Q
28
Decrease in Supply

S1
P
S
Q
29
Changes in SupplyN.I.C.E.P.P.

• Natural/Manmade Phenomenon
• Input Costs
• Competition
• Expectations
• Profitability of alternative goods in supply
• Profitability of goods in joint-supply

30
Changes in SupplyN.I.C.E.P.P.

• Natural/Manmade Phenomenon
• Natural disasters
• Weather
• Wars
• Riots
• Strikes
• Pretty much anything not covered under your
  homeowners policy causes supply to change.

31
Changes in Supply N.I.C.E.P.P.

• Input Costs
• Prices of raw materials or other factors of
  production
• Changes in technology
• Changes in productivity (efficiency gains/losses)
• Government policies (business taxes regulations)

32
Changes in Supply N.I.C.E.P.P.

• Competition
• Number of producers in the market
• Ex. Fewer producers less supply
• More Producers more supply
• Competitive Market supplies more than
  Monopolistic Market

33
Changes in SupplyN.I.C.E.P.P.

• Expectations
• If producers expect prices to rise in the future,
  then they supply less now, so that they can sell
  their good/service at the future higher price
• Ex. If you expect your stocks to increase in
  value, then you are inclined to not sell them
  now, but instead you are inclined to sell them
  later at a higher price
• If producers expect prices to fall in the future
  then they supply more now while prices are still
  relatively higher
• Ex. If you expect your stocks to decrease in
  value, then you are inclined to sell them now

34
Changes in SupplyN.I.C.E.P.P.

• Profitability of alternative goods in supply
• If farmers can make more money growing pineapples
  instead of bananas, then the supply of pineapples
  will increase and the supply of bananas will
  decrease
• If auto manufacturers can make more money selling
  SUVs instead of sedans, then the supply of SUVs
  will increase while the supply of sedans will
  decrease
• Remember productive resources are scarce,
  therefore decisions about what to produce must be
  made and this entails sacrifice. Remember
  opportunity cost.

35
Changes in SupplyN.I.C.E.P.P.

• Profitability of goods in joint-supply
• If the supply of beef increases, then the supply
  of leather increases
• If the supply of artichokes increases, then the
  supply of artichoke hearts increases
• Think by-products

36
Equilibrium

• When supply demand, there is equilibrium in the
  market
• Equilibrium creates a single price and quantity
  for a good/service

37
Market Equilibrium

P
S
p
D
Q
q
38
Changes in equilibrium

• When supply or demand changes, the equilibrium
  price and quantity change
• If demand increases then price increases and
  quantity increases
• If demand decreases then price decreases and
  quantity decreases
• If supply increases then price decreases and
  quantity increases
• If supply decreases then price increases and
  quantity decreases

39
Increase in Demand

P
S
p1
p
D1
D
Q
q
q1
D ? . P ? Q ?
40
Decrease in Demand

P
S
p
p1
D
D1
Q
q1
q
D ? . P? Q?
41
Increase in Supply

P
S
S1
p
p1
D
Q
q
q1
S ? . P ? Q ?
42
Decrease in Supply

S1
P
S
p1
p
D
Q
q
q1
S ? . P? Q?
43
Simultaneous Changes in Supply and Demand

• If supply and demand both increase then price is
  indeterminate, but quantity definitely increases
• If supply and demand both decrease then price is
  indeterminate, but quantity definitely decreases

44
Simultaneous Increase in Supply Demand

P
S
S1
p
p1
D1
D
Q
q
q1
q2
S ? D ? . P ? Q ?
45
Simultaneous Decrease in Supply Demand

S1
P
S
p1
p
D
D1
Q
q
q1
q2
S ? D ? . P ? Q?
46
Simultaneous Changes in Supply and Demand

• If supply decreases while demand increases, then
  price definitely increases while quantity is
  indeterminate
• If supply increases while demand decreases, then
  price definitely decreases while quantity is
  indeterminate

47
Decrease in Supply w/ Simultaneous Increase in
Demand
P

S1
S
p2
p1
p
D1
D
Q
q
q1
S ? D ? . P? Q ?
48
Increase in Supply w/ Simultaneous Decrease in
Demand

P
S
S1
p
p1
p2
D
D1
Q
q
q1
S ? D ? . P? Q?
49
Disequilibrium

• If price occurs at some point where supply and
  demand are not , then disequilibrium exists.
• If the price is higher than the equilibrium
  price, then a surplus (QsgtQD) occurs
• If the price is lower than the equilibrium price,
  then a shortage occurs (QsltQD)

50
Market Disequilibrium (Price, px, above
Equilibrium Price, pe)

P
S
px
pe
D
Q
qe
qs
qd
If price is px, then qd lt qs . surplus exists
(surplus qs qd)
51
Market Disequilibrium (Price, px, below
Equilibrium Price, pe)

P
S
pe
px
D
Q
qe
qd
qs
If price is px, then qs lt qd . shortage exists
(shortage qd qs)
52
Causes of Disequilibrium

• Price floor a minimum price for a good/service
  or resource determined outside of the market
• Ex. Minimum wage
• Price ceiling a maximum price for a
  good/service or resource determined outside of
  the market
• Ex. Concert tickets sold by Ticket-master

53
Effective Price Floor (ex. Minimum wage in
competitive unskilled labor market)

P
S
pmw
pe
D
Q
qe
qs
qd
If price floor is effective, then qd lt qs .
surplus labor exists
54
Effective Price Ceiling (ex. Single price for
admission to a popular concert )

P
S
pe
pt
D
Q
qe
qd
qs
If price ceiling is effective then qs lt qd .
ticket shortage exists
55
Conclusion

• Markets work best when supply and demand
  determine the price of goods/services or
  resources.
• When forces other than supply and demand
  determine the price of goods/services or
  resources, surpluses and shortages result.
• Over time, the forces of supply and demand
  undermine artificial price controls
• Ex. Black markets, ticket scalping, undocumented
  workers

56
1. Market for Dallas Mavericks Tickets

• Event Dallas make the NBA playoffs.

___ S ___ D ___ P ___Q
57
2. Market for Lumber

• Event OSHA (government agency) requires sawmill
  workers to wear new expensive safety glasses

___ S ___ D ___ P ___Q
58
3. Market for Gasoline

• Event OPEC agrees to increase quotas and export
  more oil

___ S ___ D ___ P ___Q
59
4. Market for Pizza

• Event incredible pizza machine doubles the
  amount of pizzas that can be baked in 20 minutes

___ S ___ D ___ P ___Q
60
5. Market for Nike Shoes

• Event Commerce Department reports that consumer
  incomes rose this year.

___ S ___ D ___ P ___Q
61
6. Market for BMWs

• Event Government puts a luxury tax of 10 on
  the sale of expensive automobiles. Producers pay
  the tax.

___ S ___ D ___ P ___Q
62
Notes
63
Notes
64
Notes