Teori-teori Pembangunan Sumber Manusia

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Teori-teori Pembangunan Sumber Manusia
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• Grid Penguruan Blake dan Mouton
• Sistem Likert
• Teori Z Ouchi
• Teori Argyris

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Grid Pengurusan Blake dan Mouton

• Teori ini diperkenalkan pada 1964 bertujuan
  menerangkan huraian gaya kepimpinan pengurus
  untuk tujuan meningkatkan kecekapan dan
  keberkesanan organisasi.
• Pengurus yang efisyen
• Tumpu kepada pekerja (Teori Hubungan Kemanusiaan)
• Tumpu kepada produktiviti (Teori Pengurusan
  Klasikal dan Saintifik)

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Grid Pengurusan Blake dan Mouton

• Grid kepimpinan utk menerangkan gaya kepimpinan.
  LIMA jenis gaya pengurusan
• Pengurusan Lemah (Impoverished Management)
• Pengurusan Kelab Riadah (Country Club Management)
• Authority-Compliance
• Pengurusan Pasukan (Team Management)
• Pengurusan Pertengahan (Mid-of-the-Road
  Management)

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The New Managerial Grid

• Insert Figure 2.2

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Blake and Moutons Managerial Grid

• Authority Compliance (9,1)
• Classical theory
• Country Club (1,9)
• Informal grapevine
• Impoverished (1,1)
• Laissez-faire
• Middle-of-the-Road (5,5)
• Compromise (carrot stick)
• Team (9,9)
• Human Resources Approach
• Promote the conditions that integrate creativity,
  high productivity, and high morale through
  concerted team action

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Likerts System of Management

• Exploitive Autocratic
• Benevolent Autocratic
• Consultative
• Participative Team

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• Perbezaan keempat-empat sistem ada dari aspek
  motivasi, komunikasi, pembuatan keputusan,
  penyediaan maklumat, kawalan, struktur pengaruh
  dan persepsi.
• Kajian Likert mendapati kebanyakan organisasi
  mengamalkan sistem 4 ( Pembabitan Organisasi/
  Participative Team)
• Ciri-ciri sistem 4
• Terdapat hubungan saling membantu ketua dan
  pekerja bawahan.
• Proses pembuatan keputusan adalah secara
  kolektif.
• Ahli organisasi juga merupakan ahli unit dalam
  organisasi.
• Organisasi mempunyai matlamat pencapaian tinggi.

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Teori Z Ouchi Teori alternatif kepada Teori X dan
Y dan teori ini adalah berdasarkan corak
pengurusan Jepun. Teori Z lebih mengutamakan
pembentukan dan penyuburan sumber manusia dalam
organisasi. Teori Argyris Menekankan peranan
individu dalam organisasi. Menyokong komunikasi
terbuka dalam organisasi dan penglibatan dlm
membuat keputusan.
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Implikasi Teori-teori Sumber Manusia terhadap
Komunikasi
Kandungan Komunikasi Berkaitan tugas, sosial dan inovasi
Arah Komunikasi Pelbagai arah dan antara kumpulan
Saluran Komunikasi Semua saluran
Gaya komunikasi Formal dan tidak formal
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Kesimpulan Pendekatan Sumber Manusia dalam
pengurusan adalah kesan kelemahan Teori Hubungan
Kemanusiaan. Prinsip-prinsip Sumber Manusia dapat
dibentuk dalam organisasi menerusi partisipasi,
proses pembuatan keputusan, daya inovasi. Ini
jelas menerusi teori Grid Pengurusan Blake dan
Mouton, Sistem Likert 4, Teori Z Ouchi dan Teori
Argyris. Terdapat sifat kepelbagaian dalam
komunikasi dalam organisasi sumber manusia.
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Teori Sistem Ludwig Von Bertalanffy Merujuk
kepada organisasi sebagai mempunyai TIGA
komponen Susunan Hierarki (Hierarchical
Ordering) Pembentukan organisasi menyerupai satu
sistem yang kompleks seperti sistem biologi tubuh
manusia. Di dalam sistem tersebut terdapat
sub-sistem yang membantu proses
pengorganisasian. Saling Bergantung dan
Memerlukan (Interdependence) Satu sistem yang
besar memerlukan sub-sistem yang kecil untuk
beroperasi. Keterbukaan (Permeability) Organisasid
iandaikan sebagai organism hidup yang memerlukan
elemen luar untuk beroperasi. Elemen keterbukaan
menyebabkan organisasi menerima inovasi luar.
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Proses Sistem

• Sistem diterjemahkan menerusi proses
  input-throughput-output.
• inputs adalah bahan atau maklumat persekitaran
  luar yang masuk ke dalam organisasi menerusi
  elemen keterbukaan.
• Menerusi proses transformasi aktiviti
  throughput berlaku dan menghasilkan output.

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• Sistem mentransformasikan output kepada
  environment luar
• e.g.
• Kilang Perabut ? perabut ? public

Bahan mentah input
throughput
output
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Ciri-ciri Sistem Holistik -- Sistem diterangkan
sebagai menyeluruh/ besar. Sesuatu sistem itu
bersifat holistik kerana setiap anggota sistem
bergantung antara satu dengan yang lain.
Organisasi juga akan kukuh apabila terdapat
amalan berkerja bersama. Equifinality -- Untuk
mencapai sesuatu matlamat itu banyak cara yang
boleh dilakukan. Pelbagai cara tersebut akan
dilakukan untuk tujuan pencapaian metlamat
organisasi.
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Entropi Negatif -- Kecenderungan sistem yang
mengamalkan dasar tertutup untuk mengalami
kemusnahan. Sistem yang mengamalkan dasar
terbuka mampu menghalang kemusnahan. Kepelbagaian
Keperluan -- Kepelbagaian kaedah untuk mengawal
pelbagai cabaran yang mungkin muncul daripada
persekitaran sistem.
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Teori Sistem Sibernetiks -- dikembangkan oleh
Norbert Wiener 1948 1954. Fokus kepada
penerangan bagaimana satu sistem berupaya
mencapai keseimbangan atau homeostasis kerana
kewujudan pelbagai komponen yang saling berkait.
Sistem Sibernertiks mementingkan tindak balas
dalam memastikan keupayaan untuk berfungsi.
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Teori Maklumat -- Teori yang menekankan
kepentingan maklumat dalam organisasi. Pertukaran
maklumat merupakan keperluan kepada organisasi.
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• Teori Budaya Organisasi
• Fokus terhadap apakah itu organisasi? Apakah yang
  dipunyai oleh organisasi.
• Empat komponen budaya kukuh
• Nilai
• Wira (Heroes)
• Upacara dan Amalan (Rituals)
• Jaringan Budaya

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Budaya Organisasi adalah kompleks Budaya
organisasi diterjemahkan menerusi upacara,
peraturan komunikasi, cerita, kepercayaan,
simbol. Kemunculan Budaya Organisasi adalah hasil
interaksi ahli dalam organisasi. Walau
bagaimanapun tidak wujud satu Budaya Organisasi
yang unggul.
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Budaya organisasi mempunyai kesan terhadap bentuk
dan struktur organisasi. Menerusi kajian
berbentuk deskriptif pengkaji akan dapat memahami
budaya organisasi dan mengenali organisasi
tersebut. Budaya penting terhadap mengarahkan
kejayaan organisasi.
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Apakah dengan melihat bangunan tersebut anda
dapat memahami budaya organisasi tersebut?
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Motivation and Hygiene Factors Frederick
Herzberg (1923 2000)
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Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene Theory

• Focuses on outcomes that lead to higher
  motivation and job satisfaction, and those
  outcomes that can prevent dissatisfaction.
• Motivator needs relate to the nature of the work
  itselfautonomy, responsibility, interesting
  work.
• Hygiene needs are related to the physical and
  psychological context of the workcomfortable
  work environment, pay, job security.
• Unsatisfied hygiene needs create dissatisfaction
  satisfaction of hygiene needs does not lead to
  motivation or job satisfaction.

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Two-factor Theory (or Motivation-Hygiene Theory)

• Herzberg
• Job context is source of dissatisfaction
• Problems with hygiene factors (e.g., pay, working
  conditions) lead to dissatisfaction lack of
  problems means lack of dissatisfaction
• Job content is the source of job satisfaction
• Motivator factors (e.g., achievement,
  responsibility) link with job performance if
  high, satisfaction high and performance strong

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Two-factor Theory (or Motivation-Hygiene Theory)

• Validity unconfirmed not replicated using
  different methods
• Still does not explain individual differences,
  professional or cultural differences

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Motivators and Hygiene Factors

• Frederick Herzberg theorized that two entirely
  separate dimensions contribute to an employees
  behavior at workhygiene factors and motivators.
• Hygiene factors are elements such as working
  conditions, pay, policies, interpersonal
  relationships
• Motivators fulfill high-level needs and include
  achievement, recognition, responsibility and
  opportunity for growth

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Motivators and Hygiene Factors

• Motivators satisfy subordinates-the things
  which encourage them to attend work, comply to
  group or team goals, and produce.
•  They often are linked to performance. Positive
  recognition by a superior and among peers during
  a formal meeting is an example of this.

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Motivators and Hygiene Factors

• Hygiene factors keep subordinates from being
  dissatisfied. They apply to subordinates
  regardless of performance.
•  Timely and thorough completion of and counseling
  on fitness evaluations are an example of a
  hygiene factor.
•  The act is expected. When it does not happen
  subordinates become dissatisfied and may come to
  believe that superiors are not taking care of
  them.
• Satisfiers (motivators) and dissatisfiers
  (hygiene factors) lie on completely different
  scales and must be considered independently.

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Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory

• KITA versus true motivation
• Short-term movement versus long-term motivation
• Job enrichment is an attempt to instill
  an internal generator in the employee
• Studies of Herzbergs theory have included
  employees working in a variety of industries and
  jobs
• Accountants, engineers, nurses, military
  officers, and others

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Hygiene Factors

• Work environment target basic needs
• Range from dissatisfaction to no dissatisfaction
• The presence of hygiene cannot lead to
  satisfaction or high levels of motivation
• Perception that hygiene is an entitlement

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Hygiene Factors (cont)

• Salary
• Can it ever be enough?
• Benefits
• Health care costs, premium sharing
• Company policy administration
• Work conditions
• Office space, equipment, etc.

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Motivator Factors

• Motivators
• Tap needs for psychological growth
• Job content The work itself
• Lead to high levels of employee motivation and
  satisfaction

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Motivator Factors (cont)

• Examples
• Recognition
• Responsibility
• Achievement
• Growth and learning

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Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory
Hygiene Factors (lower order needs)
Motivator Factors (higher order needs)

• Salary
• Company policies
• Working conditions
• Benefits
• Job security

• Career Advancement
• Personal growth
• Recognition
• Responsibility
• Achievement

High
High
Job Dissatisfaction
Job Satisfaction
0
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Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory

• Hygiene Factor - work condition related to
  dissatisfaction caused by discomfort or pain
• maintenance factor
• contributes to employees feeling not
  dissatisfied
• contributes to absence of complaints
• Motivation Factor - work condition related to the
  satisfaction of the need for psychological growth
• job enrichment
• leads to superior performance effort

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MotivationHygiene Theory of Motivation
SOURCE Adapted from Frederick Herzberg, The
Managerial Choice To be Efficient or to Be
Human. (Salt Lake City Olympus, 1982). Reprinted
by permission.
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Motivation-Hygiene Combinations
(Motivation M, Hygiene H)
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Job Satisfaction

• Job satisfaction how positively or negatively
  individuals feel about their jobs
• Observable informally through observation and
  interpretation of behaviour and words
• Measured formally in questionnaires
• E.g., Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
• E.g., Job Descriptive Index

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Effects of Job Satisfaction

• Link to absenteeism
• Satisfied have lower absenteeism
• Link to turnover
• Dissatisfied more likely to quit
• Link to performance complex
• Satisfaction is NOT good predictor of individual
  performance
• Successful performance does seem to lead to
  greater satisfaction
• Proper allocation of rewards can increase both
  performance and satisfaction

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Summary

• Hygiene factors (dissatisfiers) are working
  conditions, pay, policies, interpersonal
  relationships
• Motivators (satisfiers) fulfill high-level needs
  and include recognition, responsibility and
  opportunity for growth

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Organizational Information Theory
Managing large amounts of information is one of
the leading challenges for organizations. As new
means of communication increase, the amount of
messages we send and receive, and the speed of
those messages increase. "Karl Weick developed
an approach to describe the process by which
organizations collect, manage, and use the
information that they recieve" (West and Turner,
p. 243).
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Organizational Information Theory
In developing his approach, Weick focuses on the
process rather than the structure. Here, his
focus was on the exchange of information that
takes place within organizations and how
individuals within the oganization take steps to
understand the material. "The focus of
Organizational Information Theory is on the
communication of information that is vital in
determining the success of an organization" (West
and Turner, p. 244).
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Karl E. Weick is the Rensis Likert Collegiate
Professor of Organizational Behavior and
Psychology Professor of Organizational Behavior
and Human Resource Management Professor of
Psychology at the University of Michigan. His PhD
is from Ohio State University in Social and
Organizational Psychology.
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Dr. Weick's Book The Social Psychology of
Organizing, first published in 1969 and revised
in 1979, was declared one of the nine best
business books ever written by Inc Magazine in
December of 1996. The organizing formulation
has more recently been expanded into a book
titled Sensemaking in Organizations.
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Dr. Weick's research interests include collective
sensemaking under pressure, medical errors,
hand-offs in extreme events, high reliability
performance, improvisation, and continuous
change. Dr. Weicks graduate level teaching
focuses on the social psychology of organizing,
micro foundations of organization studies, the
craft of scholarship, and his executive education
teaching focuses on the management of uncertainty
through sensemaking and improvisation.
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Example Application - Do you remember the Y2K
scare? Companies and people world-wide who
depended on computers were in a state of panic
when they learned that their computers might not
be compatible in the new millenium. NowBank was
one of these companies. An associate named
Dominique Martin was to head up operations for a
Y2K conversion. However, the company had
branches in Denver, Dallas, and also Phoenix. By
way of videoconferencing, all teams would meet to
discuss each branch's responsibilities. Upon
meeting, many different areas of management began
to arise. Areas such as providing updates,
maintaining communication between all branches,
and keeping their own division running made the
operation stressful. As concerns began to
escalate, Dominique realized that effective
communication would be key to the success of the
project. To manage all of the concerns,
problems, and communication issues the team
implemented aspects of Organizational Information
Theory. With communication as the highest
priority, NowBank was successful in their
conversion. The company continues to run smooth.
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Influences on O.I.T. - In Weick's first book The
Social Psychology of Organizing, he presents "his
theoretical approach explaining how organizations
make sense of and use information". Weick
states, "Organizations and their environments
change so rapidly that it is unrealistic to show
what they are like now, because that's not the
way they are going to be later". However, Weick
realized that complete knowledge could not come
from one source. There must be other influences
on communication and also relationships among
individuals. Two other theories were explored.
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General System Theory General System Theory in
developing his approach to examine how
organizations manage their information. In order
to make neccessary adjustments to reach a common
goal, an organization must depend on combined
information. Bertalanffy notes, "While in the
past, science tried to explain observable
phenomena by reducing them to an interplay of
elementary units investigatable independantly of
each other, conceptions appear in contemporary
science that are concerned with what is somewhat
vaguely termed "wholeness," i.e., problems of
organizations. General System Theory, therefore,
is the general science of "wholeness"
(Bertalanffy, pp. 36 - 37).
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Ludwig von Bertalanffy's
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General Assumptions - One way to explain the way
in which organizations make sense out of
information that may be ambiguous or confusing is
Organizational Information Theory. This theory
focuses "on the process of organizing members of
an organization to manage information rather than
on the structure of the organization itself".
There are assumptions beneath Weick's
Organizational Information Theory Human
Organizations engage in information processing to
reduce equivocality of information The
information an organization receives differs in
terms of equivocality Human organizations exist
in an information environment
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General Concepts - Organizational Information
Theory does include a significant number of
concepts that are crucial to fully understand
this theory. They are information environment,
information equivocality, and cycles of
communication. Here is a brief explanation of
each one
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Information Environment - "Information
environment is a core concept in understanding
how organizations are formed as well as how they
process information. Everyday, we are faced with
thousands of stimuli that we could potentially
process and interpret. The availability of all
stimuli is considered to be the information
environment.
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Information Equivocality - "Organizations
receive information from multiple sources They
must decode the information and determine whether
it is comprehensible, which person or department
is most qualified to deal with the information,
and whether multiple departments require this
information to accomplish their tasks. Without
clarity in these areas, there is information
equivocality"
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Cycles of Communication - There are three steps
to the cycle of communication. The three steps
consist of act, response, and adjustment. The
act "refers to the communication behaviors used
to indicate one's ambiguity as a result of
information that is received. The reaction to the
act indicating equivocality of information
defines the concept of response. A response of
clarifying information is provided as a result of
the act. As a result of the response, the
organization formulates a response in return as a
result of any adjustment that has been made to
the information that was originally received.
An adjustment is made to indicate that the
information is now understood"
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Critique Organizational Information Theory
plays a very prevalent role in organizational
communication. Communication is critical to our
personal lives, our social lives, and also our
professional lives. This theory has no
limitations within organizational communication.
It addresses aspects of the individual and also
the group within the organization. Organizational
Information Theory is a valuable theory to study
and also practice.
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Theory X/Y

• Douglas MacGregor, 1960
• Interaction between supervisors and subordinates
• Organizations management approach is determined
  by supervisors attitudes and belief about
  subordinates
• Beginning of human relations movement

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Theory X

• Role of Management
• Management responsible for organizing elements of
  productive enterprise
• People need to be controlled and directed
• People would be passive otherwise

• Human Nature
• man works as little as possible
• lacks ambition, dislikes responsibility, prefers
  to be led
• inherently self-centered
• naturally resistant to change
• gullible, not very bright

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Theory Y

• Role of Management
• Management responsible for organizing elements of
  productive enterprise
• Task of management is to arrange organizational
  conditions so that people can achieve their own
  goals best by directing their own efforts toward
  organizational objectives

• Human Nature
• People are not naturally passive, they have
  become so as a result of experience in
  organizations
• Motivation and capacity for assuming
  responsibility is inherent in people

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Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)
Theory X Assumes that employees dislike work,
lack ambition, avoid responsibility, and must be
directed and coerced to perform.
Theory Y Assumes that employees like work, seek
responsibility, are capable of making decisions,
and exercise self-direction and self-control when
committed to a goal.
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McGregors Theory X and Theory Y

• Theory X
• Management view that assumes workers generally
  dislike work and must be forced to do their jobs
• Theory Y
• Management view that assumes workers like to work
  and under proper conditions, employees will seek
  responsibility to satisfy social, esteem, and
  self-actualization needs

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Theory Z

• A management philosophy that stresses employee
  participation in all aspects of company decision
  making

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Comparison of American, Japanese, and Theory Z
Management Styles
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Variations on Theory Z

• Quality circles
• Participative management
• Employee involvement
• Self-directed work teams

Did You Know? Theory Z lets employees feel
organizational ownership, which may produce
positive attitudinal and behavioral effects for
employees.
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Maslows Theory

• We each have a hierarchy of needs that ranges
  from "lower" to "higher." As lower needs are
  fulfilled there is a tendency for other, higher
  needs to emerge.
• Daniels, 2004

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Maslows Theory

• Maslows theory maintains that a person does not
  feel a higher need until the needs of the current
  level have been satisfied. Maslow's basic needs
  are as follows

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Physiological Needs
Basic Human Needs

• Food
• Air
• Water
• Clothing
• Sex

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Safety Needs
Safety and Security

• Protection
• Stability
• Pain Avoidance
• Routine/Order

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Social Needs
Love and Belonging

• Affection
• Acceptance
• Inclusion

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Esteem Needs
Esteem

• Self-Respect
• Self-Esteem
• Respected by Others

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Self-Actualization

• Achieve full potential
• Fulfillment

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Summary