Chapter 1 Questioning Development

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Chapter 1 Questioning Development

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What is Development?

•       A working out, a gradual unfolding
•       Growth plus change, evolution, well-gown
  state, stage of advancement
•       Upward movement of an entire social system
•       Per capita real income
•       Development area one suffering from or
  liable to serve unemployment
•       Development is a means as an
  instrumental process for overcoming persistent
  poverty and achieving human development
•       Development is ultimately about improving
  the life chances of people
•       Economic development should be
  interpreted as a process of expansion of the
  positive freedom that people enjoy.it is a
  process that expands the entitlements and
  capabilities of people to live in ways we have
  reason to value. - Amartya Sens, Nobel
  Laureate.
•       Many different ideas! Affects everyone
  from the individual to the global.

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Some Histories of Development

• Modern Era Approach       
• U.S. President Truman in 1949 - Made reference to
  Underdeveloped areas (Duty to develop these
  areas)
• Began to establish a new colonial or neocolonial
  role for the U.S.A. for these newly independent
  countries.
•         Guided by Modernism Trusteeship
• Modernism Idea of transforming traditional
  countries into modern western states
• Trusteeship Holding anothers property with the
  belief that the trustee is able to look after it
  better than the owner of the property, until a
  certain time in the future.

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Enlightenment Approach

• Rise of Rationalism in 18th century (age of
  reason I think, therefore I am) plus rise of
  Humanism in 19th century (return to the study of
  antiquities of classical Greece)
• Rationalism Humanism gave rise to Enlightenment
  through the 18th century
• Enlightenment Based on scientific and rational
  thinking. Rise of a secular intelligencia.
  Orderly progress and new freedoms.

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Enlightenment Approach

• Led to Development European/Western values and
  ideology
• Above gave rise to
• Progress - Pure capitalist industrialization
  (1800s)
• Development Representative of Christian order,
  modernization and responsibility (1920s)

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Authoritative Intervention

• Used Enlightenment and 19th century Humanism as
  reasoning
• Strategy was Authoritative Intervention
• Via Advise and Aid Programs
• Led to U.S. Dominated Neo Colonial Mission

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Critiques of Development

• Eurocentricity and Development
• Eurocentrism has distorted development and its
  patterns and processes through their
  pseudoscientific rational and reasoning.
• All major strategies are Eurocentric in origin
  and in bias. So, everything from modernism
  through neo-Marxism to the neo-liberal counter
  culture. All of these ideas originated in
  Europe.
• Captalist Driven and seen as a meta narrative
  or universal in their assumptions.

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Critiques of Development

• AAlternative and Populist Approaches Began in
  1970s
• Locally oriented, idea of development from
  below strategies. Used in rural peasant based
  societies. People oriented and heavily community
  based.
• Shelter, education, and health care. NGOs play a
  big part in community development and empowering
  the poor.
• Criticisms of the NGOS is that they are moving
  away from the communities and becoming more of a
  bridge to the state. The NGO is also
  disempowering the community members by bypassing
  the more outspoken members of the community.

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Critiques of Development

• Antidevelopment!
• Based on the failures of modernism
• Argued that West developed discourse around
  development leads to an uneven power relationship
• Western development helped to create
  poverty,underdevelopment, backwardness,
  landlessness and so on
• Western society then rushed to solves these
  problems via programs that fail to
  recognize/respect local culture and customs

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Critiques of Development

• Antidevelopment places emphasis on new/indigenous
  social movements based on democracy and
  egalitarian politics based on local knowledge
  (ex. Zapatistas Movement in Southern Mexico)
• Criticisms to antidevelopment Does not
  recognize 4 Asian Tigers and Japan
• Development has brought about better health
  care and education for a majority of the
  developing world.
• Seen as an elitist argument that is guilty of its
  own reductionism and dependency theories
  (borrowing from the Eurocentric tradition)

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Critiques of Development

• The Postmodern Stance
• Moves away from large scale theory to specific
  issues _at_ local level that relate to improving
  peoples basic needs (womens craft cooperatives
  and self-help shelter development
• Some argue a liberation of thought, embracing
  local otherness, and support for small scale
  development

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Critiques of Development Post Modern Stance

• McGee argues that this collection of empirical
  studies _at_ the local level and are invaluable to
  the development process
• Others argue it is the cultural logic of late
  capitalism

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Spatializing Development

• 1930s-1950s - The Idea of a Third World
  Emerging
•        It was seen as a Third Way or a Third
  Force to the Communist-Fascist extremes in the
  1930s in Europe.
•        Revived again at the beginning of the
  Cold War by the French Left.
•        Conference held in Bandung, Indonesia in
  1955 for newly independent states, (e.g. India,
  Yugoslavia, Egypt) who saw themselves in a
  position of non-alignment (neither Western nor
  Communist) and also anti-Colonial. John
  Friedmann claims that one outcome of the
  conference was the decision of these states to
  call themselves the Third World.
•        The Bloc did pursue a middle way in
  international relations in the 1950s 1960s

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Spatializing Development- The Third World

• Problems Excluded the communist countries and
  Latin American countries did not attend the
  conference in Bandung. Additionally, there was
  no economic capital to sustain their remaining
  colonial economies.
• The Third World
• Common Political Origins AntiColonial
  NonAlignment
• United in POVERTY

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• 1960s Failure of Modernization Strategies
• Did not bring predicted growth to the Third World
• Rising political concern that this persistent and
  widespread poverty would lead to more Communist
  Coups. (e.g. Castros revolution in Cuba)
• This gave rise to a quantitative revolution in
  development, both from a planning and economic
  perspective. Began using Gross National Product
  (GNP) to rank countries.
• There was still incredible unevenness within
  countries.
• By the mid 1960s, the world had a West, a
  Communist Bloc, and the Third World

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The 1970s

• 1970s Growing Political and Economic
  Fragmentation of Third World.
• OPEC raise oil prices substantially in 1973-74
  and then again in 1979 following the
  fundamentalist revolution in Iran.
• -OPEC wanted to punish the West
• for supporting Israel.
• -Hurt non-oil producing developing countries more
  than the West
• -Many of these developing countries were
  following oil led industrialization and transport
  development programs.
• This resulted in a widened income gap between
  developing countries.

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1970s

• The New International Division of Labour (NIDL)
  emerged at this time.
• MNC in West wanted to invest in various
  developing countries that could meet certain
  criteria.
• -Substantial investments in 4 Asia Tigers and
  Mexico and Brazil. The GNP rose rapidly for
  these countries during this time.
• Considerable debates about naming of the third
  world after the fall of communism and
  underdeveloped regions within the first world
  (fourth world)
• After 30 years of debate, the World Bank still
  uses GDP as its key development indicator

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1980s The Lost Decade

•        Rise of the New Right with Ronald Regan
  being elected in the U.S.A. and Margaret Thatcher
  in Great Britain.
•        The report, North-South A Program for
  Survival written by the Brandt Commission was
  released in 1980.
• -Seen as visionary
• -Argued a much more balanced equitable system
  between the North
• -Put Greater responsibilities on TNCs to create
  greater equity within countries that they
  operated in.

Willy Brandt, Chancellor of West Germany,
1969-1974
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1980s The Lost Decade

• Problem North-South division was not
  explained. The model was also competing against
  the core periphery model semi periphery model
  developed by Wallerstein       

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1980s The Lost Decade

• Those that met at Cancun, Mexico in 1981 refuted
  the Brandt Report and instead settled for
  financial packages from the World Bank. The
  World Bank responded with Structural Adjustment
  Programs. Seen as very tough loan programs that
  Blasted open third world economies, Bellos 94

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1980s The Lost Decade

• Even using notions of sustainability One world
  or no world, to offer paired down SAPs to the
  developing world.

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The 1990s and Beyond

• Rise of Regional Economic Blocs-NAFTA and APEC
• Outspoken scholars, Sachs, Corbridge, and
  Friedmann continue to call an end to the Third
  World,
• Friedmann noted that policy shall be built around
  the disempowered, where ever they are
• Third World is it becoming more diverse.
•        However, Norwine and Gonzalez compare the
  Third World to a Brazilian Rainforest such that
  it is very diverse as well, but it is still a
  recognizable entity.
•        The one thing that still unites all of
  these countries is the grinding poverty with
  seemingly no escape.

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Still the Third World?

• Some argue the Third World is SIC, an an outcome
  of Slavery, Imperialism, and Colonialism.
• Not simply a semantic or geographic device
• More a process of exploitation, which contrasts
  at the local, region, national and global levels
  are growing wider
• More of a focus on human beings and their welfare
  rather than a politically correct label.
• What do you think?

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Measuring Development from GNP to HDI

• 1950s Development strategies used the idea of
  Growth Theory, which was intended to __________
  and ___________ within these newly independent
  countries.
•        Based on the above, Gross National
  Product (GNP) became the quantitative measure for
  these countries beginning in the 1960s.
•        Problems No indication of the true
  distribution of wealth within the nation.
  However, it did begin to reveal the growing
  unevenness between the developed world and the
  developing world by the 1980s.

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Measuring Development from GNP to HDI

• 1970s-1980s - Began to see a rise in many
  different social indicators
•        Related to health, education, nutrition
  and even gender inequality.
•        Problem with these social indicators?
  They are not always consistent and can easily be
  manipulated.
•        Thus, there was then a push to return to
  a single composit measure in the late 1980s.
•        Rise of the Human Development Index
  through the 1990s.

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The Human Development Index

• Criticisms Still a linear process and still
  measures how far these countries deviate from the
  Western Ideal. Esteva (1992)

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Progress from the 1970s to the 1990s?
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An Unequal World?
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Millennium Declaration Goals (MDG)

•        Millennium Declaration Goals Adopted by
  the UN in 2000. Can be described as a list of
  quantifiable, specific, measurable goals for
  poverty eradication by 2015.
•        Outcome based, contains 8 goals (Focused
  on Hunger/poverty, education equality and women,
  child mortality, maternal health, addresses
  HIV/AIDs and Malaria, environmental
  sustainability, and a global partnership for
  development,
• -Managed by 18 targets, and 48 indicators.
•       MDGs should amount to realistic and
  reachable targets and goals

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Some Reflections on the MDGs -

• However, even if targets are met by 2015,
  900,000 million people will still be living in
  poverty
• MDGs will be most helpful in achieving poverty
  reduction if they are chosen well in the sense of
  being
•        -Familiar to the main actors and
  stakeholders
•        -Unambiguous
•        -Readily monitored
•        -SMART (Specific, Measurable Achievable,
  Relevant, and Time-bound), as commonly required
  of targets set in business and public
  administration.
•  
• Success of MDGNeed specific targets and
  outcomes, leadership, and

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Are the MDGs Working?
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Problems with the MDGs and their Targets

•        Political, not scientific
•        Based on extrapolations of past
  achievements made by agency secretariats
•        Not based on a country-by-country
  assessment of feasibility
•        Most MDGs call for reduction in
  indicators of poverty by ½ percent. This could
  be met by good performance in countries like
  India, China, or Brazil, which have large
  populations.
• Also, many national governments were working to
  respond to the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper
  (PRSP) process initiated in 1999 in connection
  for conditional debt write-off for Highly
  Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC)

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Grounds for Guarded Optimism

•        Comprehensive Development Frameworks
  (CDFs) - 1999 World Bank launched the CDFs
  approach.
• Intended to provide the overarching development
  framework for low and middle-income countries.
  -Based on an integrated, long-term, holistic
  approach, emphasis on country ownership and
  broad participatory process to poverty reduction
  through consensus and identifying priorities.
  - -- -Includes governments, donors, civil
  society, and the private sector.

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Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers

• Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSP) Seen
  as the key tool for putting the principles of the
  CDF into practice. Essentially the strategic
  documents around which the World Bank and the IMF
  (and other donors) coordinate their assistance to
  low-income countries, as well as to be considered
  for debt relief.
•        Seen as the successor to structural
  adjustment programmes
•        Written by national governments and must
  include broad participatory processes (includes
  everything from school children to the World
  Bank).

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• PRSP Process
•        Headed by different national ministries
  than MDGs. (Used broad based - green and clean
  goal development with donor organizations.)
• -By April 2004 53 countries were engaged in the
  PRSP process. 48 completed interim PRSPs and 37
  countries have complete full PRSPs.
•        Usually shorter-term than MDG (3 years)
  and incorporate existing sector objectives and
  strategies.

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• However, consistent with MDG for 3 reasons
•  
• 1.     Historical roots and high profile of the
  MDGs.
• 2.     Developing countries long-standing
  commitment to the MDGs.
• 3.     Growing involvement of donors towards the
  incremental reduction of poverty Especially in
  education and health care.
•  
• In fact, the 2003 Human Development Report
  proposed to develop the process into a new
  Millennium Development Compact, which would
  formalize the above.

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The Missing Middle

•        Both MDG and PRSPs are only spottily
  specific about activities and processes whereby
  policy seeks to bring about outcomes.
•        This leads to a missing middle of outputs
  and intermediate outcomes.
•        For example, households circumstances
  more powerful that public service provisions
  regarding some targets.

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Results Oriented Budgeting

•        This means that spending ministries and
  agencies must specify the results they expect to
  achieve with the budgets they are bidding for,
  especially with reference to results that they
  have already achieved in previous years. This
  creates a framework of accountability.
•        Singapore and Malaysia started doing this
  in the 1980s. Chile and Bolivia in the early
  1990s. S. Africa, Tanzania, and Uganda started
  using this in the mid 1990s.

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PRSP Process Grassroots Consultative Session
with the Local Community Regarding Agriculture
(Tanzania) -Various causes of income poverty,
especially in the agricultural sector, were
identified, namely Poor working tools and
technology (highlighted by over one-third of the
groups involved in the workshops)
Non-availability of farm inputs (approximately
one third) Poor roads (nearly one third)
Limited access to markets (one third)
Non-availability of credits (almost one third)
Collapse of cooperatives (one sixth) Adverse
climatic conditions (one-sixth) and Absence
of safety-nets to cope with (weather-related)
short-term fluctuations in income (one-sixth).
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PRSP Process in early 2000s Grassroots
Consultative Session with the Local Community
Regarding Education (Tanzania)

• Education
• Over one half of the groups participating in the
  Zonal Workshops cited education as a major
• concern, and specifically noted the following
  problems
• Limited access to primary school education
• Poor quality
• Inhibiting role, especially in regard to
  access, of the cost-sharing mechanisms, including
• the misuse, and lack of transparency in the
  deployment of funds contributed by parents
• High dropout rates and
• High rate of illiteracy.

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Poverty Monitoring and Delivery-

•  
•        Seen as the Achilles Heel of Program
  based budgeting
•        Reason Information, statistics, and
  academic research is slow to reach the desks of
  line ministries for policy purposes.
•  
•        Heading in a positive direction! User
  groups (such as parent teachers associations) are
  holding service providers accountable to their
  budgets. These groups are becoming aware of
  their entitlements and very vocal in their
  complaints about service inadequacies. Tanzania
  has set up a very effective system dedicated to
  poverty monitoring.

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Donor Commitment

•        Monterrey Consensus in 2002
•        EU, U.S. and other countries pledged
  additional assistance of over 12 billion in aid
  to developing countries involved in the PRSP. So
  a rise from 58 billon in 2002 dollars to 79
  billion in 2006 dollars.
• Follow-up conference in Doha, Quatar in late
  2008. Poorly attended by the G8. Purpose was to
  get the vague objectives from the Monterrey
  Consensus into more concrete terms and
  deliverables.
•        Problems Arrives late in the day for
  the MDGs, but it does show signs of underwriting
  more accurate poverty reduction goals as compared
  to the past.

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Chapter 2 - Colonialism

• What is Colonialism?
• What is Imperialism?

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Colonialism is.

•        The establishment and maintenance for an
  extended time, of rule over an alien people that
  is separate and subordinate to the ruling power -
  King (1976)
•        The policy or practice of acquiring
  political control over another country, occupying
  it with settlers, and exploiting it economically.
  Oxford Dictionary (1999)
•        The establishment of domination of a
  geographically extended political unit, most
  often inhabited by people of a different race and
  culture, where this domination is political and
  economic and the colony exists subordinated to
  and dependent on the mother country.- Blauer

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Colonialism is

• Colonialism is often defined as a system of
  government, which seeks to defend an unequal
  system of commodity exchange Corbridge (1993).
•        Said (1979) maintains that colonialism
  exited in order to impose the superiority of the
  European way of life on that of the Oriental, a
  colonization of minds and bodies as much as that
  of space and economies and much harder to
  transcend or throw off.

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Imperialism is.

• Some Definitions of Imperialism
• A policy of extending a countrys power and
  influence through colonization, use of military
  force, or other means (Concise Oxford
  Dictionary, 1999)
• The above definition leads to discrepancies in
  the chronology of imperialism. For example,
• Maxist (Leninist) analysts believe that this
  monopoly stage of capitalism only began around
  the start of the twentieth century (Bell 1980)
• Another more broadly reaching definition is,
• both formal colonies and privileged positions in
  markets, protected sources of materials and
  extended opportunities for profitable employment
  of labour (Barratt-Brown, 1974 22)