Chapter Two:

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Chapter Two

• Theories of Development

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What Theories Do

• Developmental theorysystematic statement of
  principles and generalizations that provides a
  coherent framework for studying development

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What Theories Do, cont.

• Theories
• form basis for hypotheses that can be tested by
  research studies
• formulating right question is more difficult that
  finding right answers
• generate discoveries
• offer insight and guidance by providing coherent
  view

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What Theories Do, cont.

• Different Types
• grand theoriescomprehensive, traditional
  theories
• originated in psychology
• minitheoriestheories that focus on specific area
  of development
• originated more in sociology through study of
  social groups and family structures
• emergent theoriesnew, comprehensive groupings of
  minitheories
• multidisciplinary approach includes historic
  events and genetic discoveries

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Grand Theories

• Grand Theoriespowerful framework for
  interpreting and understanding change and
  development that applies to all individuals in
  all contexts, across all contents

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Psychoanalytic Theory

• Psychoanalytic theory interprets human
  development in terms of motives and drives

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Freuds Ideas

• Sigmund Freud
• Three stages of development in first six years
• oral, anal, phallic
• in early childhood, latency and then adolescence,
  genital
• each stage includes potential conflicts
• how a person experiences and resolves conflicts
  determines personality and patterns of behavior

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Eriksons Ideas

• Erik Erikson, a follower of Freud, proposed 8
  developmental stages, each characterized by a
  developmental crisis
• trust vs. mistrust
• autonomy vs. shame
• initiative vs. guilt
• industry vs. inferiority
• identity vs. role diffusion
• intimacy vs. isolation
• generativity vs. stagnation
• integrity vs. despair

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Behaviorism

• Behaviorism is built on laws of behavior and
  processes by which behavior is learned
• focus ways we learn specific behaviors that can
  be described, analyzed, and predicted with
  scientific accuracy

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Laws of Behavior

• Conditioningany process in which behavior is
  learned
• Classical conditioningIvan Pavlov
• process by which a neutral stimulus become
  associated with a meaningful stimulus
• stimulus and response (respondent conditioning)
• Operant conditioningB. F. Skinner
• process by which a response is gradually learned
  via reinforcement or punishment
• also called instrumental conditioning

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Social Learning

• Extension of learning theory that includes
  modeling which involves people observing behavior
  and patterning their own after it
• Modeling
• process in which people observe, then copy
  behavior
• Alfred Banduramost likely to occur if model is
  admired or observer is inexperienced
• self-efficacy motivates people to change
  themselves and their contexts

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Cognitive Theory

• Focuses on the structure and development of
  thought processes, which shape perceptions,
  attitudes, and actions.
• Jean Piagets 4 Stages
• sensorimotor
• pre-operational
• concrete operational
• formal operational

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Cognitive Theory, cont.

• Cognitive equilibriumstate of mental balance
• Cognitive adaptationassimilation, accommodation
  of ideas

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Emergent Theories

• Emergent theories arise from several accumulated
  minitheories and may be the new systematic and
  comprehensive theories of the future

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Sociocultural Theory

• Seeks to explain growth of individual knowledge,
  development, and competencies in terms of
  guidance, support, and structure supplied by the
  society
• human development is the result of dynamic
  interaction of the developing persons and their
  surrounding culture

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Guided Participation

• Guided participationtutor engages learner in
  joint activities, providing instruction and
  direct involvement in learning
• Apprenticeship in thinkingmentor provides
  instruction and support needed by novice

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The Zone of Proximal Development

• Zone of proximal developmentrange of skills
  learner can perform with assistance but not
  independently
• learner is drawn into learning by teacher
• Cultural variations Basic principles are
  universal, but skills, challenges, and
  opportunities vary from culture to culture,
  depending on the values and structures of the
  cultures society

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Epigenetic Theory

• Emphasizes the interaction between genes and the
  environmentthe newest developmental theory
• stresses that we have powerful instincts and
  abilities that arise from our biological
  heritage. Timing and pace of certain
  developmental changes are genetically guided
• performismeverything is set in advance by genes
  and then is gradually manifested in the course of
  maturation

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With, On, and Around the Genes

• Genetic refers to the entire genome that makes up
  the particular genes that cause each person to be
  unique
• each human has a genetic foundation that is
  unique
• epigenetic theory acknowledges the powerful
  instincts and abilities that arise from our
  biological heritage

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With, On, and Around the Genes, cont.

• Epi with, around, before, after, on, or near
  surrounding factors
• epigeneticsurrounding factors that affect
  expression of genetic instructions
• some surrounding factors may be stress factors
  others may be facilitating factors
• Genetic-environmental Interactions
• genes never function alone

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Genetic Adaptation

• Adaptation of the Genes
• selective adaptation means that genes for the
  traits that are most useful will become more
  frequent, thus making survival of species more
  likely

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What Theories Can Contribute

• Psychoanalytic theory has made us aware of
  importance of early childhood experiences
• Behaviorism has shown effect of immediate
  environment on learning
• Cognitive theory helps us understand how
  intellectual process and thinking affect actions

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What Theories Can Contribute, cont.

• Sociocultural theory has reminded us that
  development is embedded in a rich and
  multifaceted context
• Epigenetic theory emphasizes interactions between
  inherited forces and immediate contexts

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Other Theories

• Brief Solution Focused
• Narrative
• Art
• Play
• PsychoDrama
• Object-Relations
• Jungian
• Transactional Analysis
• 12 - step
• Social Learning
• Biblio-therapy

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What Theories Can Contribute, cont.

• Eclectic perspective
• approach taken by most developmentalists in which
  they apply aspects of each of the various
  theories rather than staying with just one
• Integrated is better

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Eclectic verses Integrated

• Eclectic picks from multiple sources without
  common thread

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Integration

• Integration picks from theories with purpose and
  with commonality

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Level of Concepts
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The Nature-Nurture Controversy

• Is it heredity or environment that shapes us?
• How much is a result of any given
  characteristics, behavior or pattern of
  development is a result of genes and how much is
  a result of experiences
• Policy and practice nature/nurture theories are
  implicit in many public policies

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Theoretical Perspectives on Hyperactivity and
Homosexuality

• AD/HD and homosexualityHow and to what extent
  are nature and nurture involved in each case?
• Evidence from AD/HD research that it can come
  from either

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Theoretical Perspectives on Hyperactivity and
Homosexuality, cont.

• Earlier assumptions about homosexuality more
  nurture than nature. As hypotheses tested,
  nurture was revealed as less crucial
• sexual orientation may be a matter of nature
• sexual expression may be a matter of cultural
  attitude (nurture) but not sexual orientation
• evidence supporting nature as main factor (e.g.,
  affect of genetic linkage, prenatal hormones)

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Theoretical Perspectives on Hyperactivity and
Homosexuality, cont.

• Ideology often adds to complexity and
  polarization of opinions on many subjects when
  nature and nurture are considered
• Important to separate assumptions from facts
• done via research and testing of hypotheses

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Chapter Three

• Heredity and Environment

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The Genetic Code

• Development that is dynamic, ongoing,
  interactional, and unique just four chemicals
  are the basic building blocks of the genetic code

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What Genes Are

• Genes are made up of DNAthe complex protein code
  of genetic information
• DNA directs the form and function of each body
  cell as it develops

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What Genes Are, cont.

• Each molecule of DNA is called a chromosome
• Chromosomes contain instructions to make all the
  proteins a living being needs
• The complete packet of instructions is called a
  genome
• Each person has 23 sets of chromosomes, or 46
  chromosomes
• The human genome contains 30,000 genes

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The Beginnings of Human Life

• Gametereproductive cell that directs process by
  which genetic information combined and
  transmitted
• Father gametessperm
• Mother gametesovum

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Zygote and Genotype

• Male and female gametes fuse and become a zygote
• Zygote begins process of duplication and division
• two reproductive cells
• Genotypethe genetic information from the 46
  chromosomes
• set at human conception and endures through life

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Sex Determination and Sex Ratio

• Of 22 out of 23 pairs of human chromosome, the
  matching chromosomes are very closely matched
• but not identical
• some genes come in slight, normal variations
  called alleles
• The 23rd pair is different
• in females, it is designated XX
• in males, it is designated XY

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Sex Determination and Sex Ratio, cont.

• Females always contribute one X
• Males will have 1/2 of the sperm contributing an
  X and the other half contributing a Y
• Critical factor in determining the sex of a
  zygote is which sperm reaches the ovum first

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Sex Determination and Sex Ratio, cont.

• Other factors include
• rarely, male sperm may only carry either X or Y
• sometimes a womans uterus either unusually
  alkaline or acid, giving either an X or Y sperm
  an advantage
• in a stressful pregnancy XY embryos are more
  likely to be expelled than are XX embryos in a
  spontaneous abortion, or miscarriage
• current sex ratio in United States is 52 males to
  48 females

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Multiple Zygotes

• Monozygotic twinsidentical twins (or
  quadruplets) originate from one zygote
• share identical instructions
• possibility of cloning
• 1/3 of twins monozygotic

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Multiple Zygotes, cont.

• Dizygotic twinsfrom two separate zygotes
• Dizygotic births occur once in every 60 births,
  and occur as frequently as 1 in 6 pregnancies,
  but usually only 1 twin develops past embryo
  stage

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Multiple Zygotes, cont.

• Dizygotic twins
• women in late 30s are three times more likely to
  have dizygotic twins
• as menopause approaches, ovulation becomes
  irregular with some cycles producing no ovas and
  others producing multiple ovas
• share no more genes than other offspring (about
  50 percent)
• 50 percent of the time one twin is male

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Duplication, Division, and Differentiation

• The zygote contains a complete set of
  instructions to create a person
• Complex instructions on duplication, cell
  division, and differentiation

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Duplication and Division

• Zygote begins duplication and division within
  hours after conception
• the 23 pairs of chromosomes duplicate, forming
  two complete sets of the genetic code for that
  person (zygote)
• these two pair sets move toward the opposite
  sides of the zygote and the single cell in the
  zygote splits down the middle
• the zygotes outer membrane surrounds two cells,
  each containing a complete set of the original
  genetic code
• these two cells then duplicate and divide to
  become four, then eight, and so on

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Duplication and Division, cont.

• by birth, your original zygote has duplicated and
  divided into 10 trillion cells . . . by
  adulthood, its 100 trillion cells
• Every cell carries an exact copy of the complete
  genetic instructions inherited by the one-celled
  zygote

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Differentiation

• Not just any cell found in the zygote can become
  a person
• At the 8-cell stage a third process,
  differentiation, occurs
• Cells begin to specialize
• they take different forms
• they reproduce at different rates, depending on
  where in the growing mass they are located

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Differentiation, cont.

• Certain genes affect differentiation by switching
  other genes on and others off so that the other
  genes produce the right proteins at the right
  timeson-off switching mechanisms
• Genotypethe genetic potential

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Gene - Gene Interactions

• Multifactoral traitsinherited traits produced by
  interaction of genes and environment
• Polygenetic traitsinherited traits produced by
  gene interaction
• These are affected by on-off switching
  mechanisms, additive genes, and
  dominant-recessive genes

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Additive Genes

• Additive genesone of a number of genes affecting
  a specific trait
• each additive gene contributes to the trait
• skin color and height are determined by them
• every additive gene has some impact on a persons
  phenotype
• when genes interact this way, all the involved
  genes contribute fairly equally

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Dominant and Recessive Genes

• Nonadditive genesphenotype shows one gene more
  influential than other genes
• This is also referred to as the
  dominant-recessive pattern
• gene showing the most influence is referred to as
  dominant
• gene showing the least influence is referred to
  as recessive

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Dominant and Recessive Genes, cont.

• X-linked geneslocated on X chromosome
• if recessive gene is X-linked, that it is on the
  X chromosome is critical
• males have only one X chromosome females have 2
  X chromosomes
• Whatever recessive genes a male inherits on his X
  chromosome cannot be counterbalanced or dominated
  by alleles on a second X, so any recessive genes
  on X will be expressed
• Explains why males have more X-linked disorders
  (ex. color blindness, many allergies, several
  diseases, some learning disabilities)

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More Complications

• Genes direct the creation of 20 amino acids that
  produce thousands of proteins forming the bodys
  structure and directing biochemical functions
• proteins of each body cell are continually
  affected by other proteins, nutrients, and toxins
  that influence the cell functioning

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More Complications, cont.

• genetic imprintingtendency of certain genes to
  be expressed differently when inherited from
  mother than from father (tagging)
• some of the genes which influence height, insulin
  production, and several forms of mental
  retardation affect a child differently depending
  on which parent they came from

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Genetic Diversity

• Every person is unique

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Mechanisms of Genetic Diversity

• Since each gamete contains only 23 chromosomes,
  why is every conception genetically unique?
• 8 million chromosomally different ova x 8 million
  of the same 64 trillion different possibilities
  of children from each couple

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Health Benefits of Genetic Diversity

• Genetic diversity safeguards human health
• Minute differences can affect the ability to
  stave off certain diseases
• Genetic diversity maintains the species

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From Genotype to Phenotype

• Every psychological characteristic is genetically
  influenced
• Every psychological characteristic and personal
  trait is affected by the environment

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From Genotype to Phenotype, cont.

• Genotypegenetic potential
• Phenotypethe actual appearance of an
  indivudal--combination of genetic potential and
  expression
• we are all carriers of the unexpressed genes
• we can pass them along through the sperm or ova

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Behavior Genetics

• Behavior geneticsstudy of effects of genes on
  behavior
• personality patterns, psychological disorders,
  and intellectual abilities

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Senility Caused by Alzheimers Disease

• Most common and feared type of senility is
  Alzheimers disease
• amyloid B protein accumulates in the brain,
  leading to dysfunction and destruction of brain
  cells and disruption of the mind
• Can be geneticbut only when early-onset

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Senility Caused by Alzheimers Disease, cont.

• If late-onset, may be a combination of genes
  and environment
• other predictors may include hypertension,
  diabetes, high cholesterol, diet, exercise, not
  smoking, weight control, mental alertness, and
  physical health

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Alcoholism

• Inherited biochemistry makes some people highly
  susceptible to alcohol addiction
• addictive pull can be overpowering, or weak, or
  something in the middle
• may explain ethnic variations

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Alcoholism, cont.

• Not simply a biochemical reactionit is
  psychological and physical, and biological thus
  alcoholism is polygenetic, with alcoholics
  inheriting a combination of biochemistry-affecting
  and temperament-affecting genes
• Culture counts too(whether alcohol is present in
  environment)

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Chromosomal and Genetic Abnormalities

• We now give attention to these because we can
  recognize
• disruptions of normal development
• origins of genetic and chromosomal abnormalities
• misinformation and prejudice add to problems of
  people with these abnormalities

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Chromosomal Abnormalities

• A gamete with more than or less than 23
  chromosomes creates a zygote with chromosomal
  abnormalities
• most likely variable that creates chromosomal
  abnormalities is mothers age (over 35)
• fathers age (over 40) also a variable

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Chromosomal Abnormalities, cont.

• Most zygotes with chromosomal abnormalities never
  come to term
• spontaneous abortion occurs in about one-half of
  all fetus with chromosomal abnormalities

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Down Syndrome

• Three chromosomes at gene 21 (trisomy-21)
• Syndromea cluster of distinct characteristics
  that occur together in a given disorder

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Abnormalities of the 23rd Pair

• Location of sex chromosome
• Kleinfelters syndromeXXY
• seemingly normal child has delayed puberty
• Fragile X syndrome
• hanging on by a thread (mutated gene)
• intensifies from generation to generation
• Page 78

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Genetic Testing and Genetic Counseling

• Individuals with a parent, sibling, or child with
  a serious genetic condition known to be dominant
  or recessive
• Couples with history of early spontaneous
  abortions, stillbirths, or infertility
• Couples from the same ethnic group or
  subgroupespecially if closely related
• Women over 35 and men over 40

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The Process of Genetic Counseling

• Counselor constructs couples family history
• charts patterns of health and illness over
  generations
• Some tests provide information before conception

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The Process of Genetic Counseling, cont.

• Other tests are prenatal- page 83
• alpha-fetoprotein assay
• ultrasound (AKA sonogram)
• amniocentesis
• chorionic villi sampling
• pre-implantation testing (used in in vitro
  fertilization)
• gamete selection ova/and or sperm are screened
  to select ones free of particular problems

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A Basis for Decision

• Many want to know ahead of time
• Some do not
• There is a more knowledge of what is to comeor
  not

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Alternatives

• If both partners are carriers of a serious
  condition or are at high risk because of age or
  family characteristics, they may turn to
• in-vitro fertilization (IVF)
• gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT)
• zygote intrafallopian transfer (ZIF)
• artificial insemination donor (AID)
• postponement of pregnancy until promising
  treatments are further developed

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Chapter Four

• Prenatal Development and Birth

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From Zygote to Newborn

• Germinal periodfirst 14 days
• Embryonic period3rd through 8th weeks
• Fetal period9th week through birth

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Process of Conception
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Germinal The First 14 Days

• Zygote divides and keep dividing (at least though
  3rd doubling they are the same)
• At this stage (8 cells) differentiation begins
• early stem cells take on distinct
  characteristics
• they gravitate to locations, foreshadowing the
  type of cells they will become

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Germinal The First 14 Days, cont.

• At about a week after conception the multiplying
  cells separate into two masses
• outer layer forms a shell (later the placenta)
  and the inner cells from a nucleus (later the
  embryo)
• first task of out cells to achieve implantation
  embed themselves into the nuturant environment of
  the uterus
• 60 of all natural conceptions fail to implant
  70 of in vitro procedures fail to implant

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Embryo From the Third to the Eighth Week

• First sign of human structure thin line down the
  middle (22 days) that becomes the neural tube,
  which eventually forms the central nervous
  system, including brain and spinal column
• fourth week
• head begins to take shape
• heart begins with a miniscule blood vessel that
  begins to pulsate

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Embryo From the Third to the Eighth Week, cont.

• fifth week
• arm and leg buds appear
• tail-like appendage extends from the spine
• eighth week
• embryo weighs 1 gram and is 1 inch long
• head more rounded face formed
• all basic organs and body parts (but for sex)
  present
• 20 of all embryos spontaneously abort now

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Fetus From the Ninth Week Until Birth

• Called a fetus from 9th week on

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Third Month

• Sex organs take shape (Y cell sends signal to
  male sex organs for females, no signal occurs)
• genital organs fully shaped by 12th week
• All body parts present
• Fetus can move every part of body
• Fetus weighs 3 ounces and is 3 inches long

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Middle Three Months Preparing to Survive

• Heartbeat stronger
• Digestive and excretory systems develop more
  fully
• Impressive brain growth (6X in size and
  responsive)
• new neurons develop (neurogenesis)
• synapsesconnections between neurons
  (synaptogenesis)

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Middle Three Months Preparing to Survive, cont.

• Age of viabilityage at which preterm baby can
  possibly survive (22 weeks)
• 26 weeks survival rate about 50
• brain maturation critical to viability
• weight critical to viability
• 28 weeks survival rate about 95

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Fetal Brain Maturation
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Final Three Months Viability to Full Term

• Maturation of the respiratory and cardiovascular
  systems
• critical difference
• Gains weight4.5 lbs. in last 10 weeks

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Risk Reduction

• Despite complexity, most babies are born healthy
• Most hazards are avoidable
• Teratologystudy of birth defects
• Teratogens (ter-at-o-gens)broad range of
  substances that can cause environmental insults
  that may cause prenatal abnormalities or later
  learning abilities

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Determining Risk

• Risk analysisweighing of factors that affect
  likelihood of teratogen causing harm

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Timing of Exposure

• Critical periodin prenatal development, the time
  when a particular organ or other body part is
  most susceptible to teratogenic damage
• entire embryonic period is critical

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Amount of Exposure

• Dose and/or frequency
• Threshold effectteratogen relatively harmless
  until exposure reaches a certain level

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Amount of Exposure, cont.

• Interaction effectrisk of harm increases if
  exposure to teratogen occurs at the same time as
  exposure to another teratogen or risk

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Genetic Vulnerability

• Genetic susceptibilities product of genes
  combined with stress
• Folic-acid deficiency may cause neural- tube
  defects
• occurs most commonly in certain ethnic groups and
  less often in others
• Males are more genetically vulnerable

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Specific Teratogens

• No way to predict risk on an individual basis
• Research has shown possible effects of most
  common and damaging teratogens
• AIDS and alcohol extremely damaging
• pregnant women with AIDS transmit it to their
  newborns high doses of alcohol cause FAS
  alcohol drug use increase risk to developing
  organism

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Low Birthweight

• Low Birthweight (LBW)
• less than 5 1/2 lbs.
• grows too slowly or weighs less than normal
• more common than 10 years ago
• second most common cause of neonatal death
• Preterm
• birth occurs 3 or more weeks before standard 38
  weeks

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Low Birthweight, cont.

• Small for Gestational Age (SGA)
• maternal illness
• maternal behavior
• cigarette smoking (25 of SGA births)
• maternal malnutrition
• poorly nourished before and during pregnancy
• underweight, undereating, and smoking tend to
  occur together

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Low Birthweight, cont.

• Factors that affect normal prenatal growth
• quality of medical care, education, social
  support, and cultural practices

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The Birth Process

• Hormones in mothers brain signals process
• Contractions begin strong and regular at 10
  minutes apart
• average labor for first births is 8 hours

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The Newborns First Minutes

• AssessmentApgar scale
• five factors, 2 points each
• heart rate
• breathing
• color
• muscle tone
• reflexes
• score of 7 or better normal
• score under 7 needs help breathing
• score under 4 needs urgent critical care

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Variations

• Parents Reaction
• preparation for birth, physical and emotional
  support, position and size of fetus, and
  practices of mothers culture
• Medical Attention
• birth in every developed nation has medical
  attention
• 22 of births in U.S. are cesarean section
• removal of fetus via incisions in mothers
  abdomen and uterus
• is medical intervention always necessary?

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Birth Complications

• Cerebral Palsybrain damage causing difficulties
  in muscle control, possibly affecting speech or
  other body movements
• Anoxialack of oxygen that, if prolonged, can
  cause brain damage or death

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First Intensive Care . . . Then Home

• At the Hospital
• many hospitals provide regular massage and
  soothing stimulation ideally, parents share in
  caregiving
• At Home
• complications, e.g., minor medical crises
• cognitive difficulties may emerge, but high-risk
  infants can develop normally

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Mothers, Fathers and a Good Start

• Strong family support (familia)
• Fathers play a crucial role
• may help wives abstain from drugs or alcohol
• can reduce maternal stress
• Parental alliancecommitment by both parents to
  cooperate in raising child
• helps alleviate postpartum depression

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Mothers, Fathers and a Good Start, cont.

• Parent-infant bondstrong, loving connection that
  forms as parents hold, examine, and feed their
  newborn
• immediate contact not needed for this to occur