Metaphysics

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Metaphysics

• Ontology "of being" is the philosophical study
  of the nature of being, existence or reality in
  general, as well as the basic categories of being
  and their relations. Traditionally listed as a
  part of the major branch of philosophy known as
  metaphysics, ontology deals with questions
  concerning what entities exist or can be said to
  exist, and how such entities can be grouped,
  related within a hierarchy, and subdivided
  according to similarities and differences.

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• The term metaphysics actually comes from somewhat
  of an historical accident. Editors of Aristotle's
  work simply titled the book which comes after his
  'physics' the 'metaphysics' - which indeed
  discusses many of the classic problems of
  metaphysics - so 'meta' simply means 'after'.

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What do you think of as some of the questions of
metaphysics?

• Metaphysics is the study of the nature, structure
  and constitution of reality - sounds almost like
  a definition of philosophy for some. A major
  component of metaphysics is ontology, i.e. what
  there is (matter, sets, null set, experience,
  minds, relations). Other aspects of metaphysics
  are questions concerning the nature of time and
  space (relations, or containers?), what
  properties all entities share, free will,
  determinism.

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• In ontology, questions concerning the nature of
  minds has become somewhat of a separate
  discussion (mind/body relation, dualism,
  reference, content, individuation) which often
  overlaps with philosophy of language and more
  recently philosophy of science (and cognitive
  science).

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Metaphysical Qs

• What metaphysical beliefs do you think you have?
• Which do you think science has? Christianity?
• Is metaphysics a waste of time? Why, why not?
• What kind of metaphysical questions can you think
  of?
• Does the past exist? Do souls exist? Does the
  future exist?
• What kinds of relations can they have?
• What is the logical structure, if any, of the
  universe?
• What are properties? Are properties and
  relations real? What is space?
• What is time? Can there be a stretch of time
  during which nothing occurs?
• Are there possible worlds? Do they exist? Are my
  actions free? Is the universe absurd or
  rational? Why is there stuff at all? Was the
  universe created? Is there a god or gods?)

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• Philosophy can be divided into two major
  directions of thought, centered on what is
  considered to be the fundamental issue in
  philosophy the relation between Being and
  Thinking.

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• Let us consider some very basic feature of our
  being. We sit for instance on a chair. We can see
  the chair, we can touch it, and the other senses
  can as well perceive of the chair. Now these
  perceptions all occur within our brain, where the
  input data of the sensory organs come together,
  and form an "image" of the thing we perceive.A
  central issue in this is whether or we regard the
  thing that caused the perceptions as real or not.
  Or in other words, apart of our perceptions and
  awareness of the chair, is there really something
  outside and separate from our mind?

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Materialism

• Materialism answers this with a clear yes. Not
  only by our senses but also through science and
  instruments, we can know about this object, that
  is separate from our mind. There is an objective
  world, independent of our mind. The objective
  world consists of what is called matter, which
  has the property of being in motion (undergoing
  change) at all times. Space and time just denote
  the modes of existence of matter.

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Idealism

• Idealism answers this with a clear no. Apart from
  our immediate perceptions and awareness of the
  world, there is no such thing as an outside,
  objective world. The world takes places entirely
  within our mind. Outside of that, nothing exists.

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METAPHYSICAL POSITIONS

• MATERIALISM
• IDEALISM
• DUALISM

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Materialism

• Hobbes is one of the first modern writers to
  explicitly endorse the position in metaphysics
  known as materialism. Materialism is an
  ontological position, that is, it answers the
  question "What is there?" - materialism answers
  "matter, i.e. physical objects". As simple,
  straightforward and uncontroversial as this
  answer may seem, it is anything but. Science, of
  course, has adopted this metaphysical position.
  But what of minds, souls, and spirit -
  consciousness? This is a question that
  materialists have no compelling answer for
  (compelling for some, in any case).

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• Hobbes was not the first materialist. At the very
  least, Democritus and Leucippus the atomists,
  preceded him. Hobbes, however, had a more modern
  view (and no doubt more of his writings survived
  so we understand the position better) of
  materialism so he is a good historically
  representative materialist. Of course, he had no
  difficultly explaining things - wood, stone,
  flesh, brains, stars, moons, bone, you name it.
  As physicists are content to do today, he
  postulated things (all things) are composed of
  atoms. So, what's the problem? What about minds?

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• Hobbes is convinced that we are complicated
  machines. Just as Data is from The Starship
  Enterprise. The episode "measure of a man" is an
  extended look at whether Data counts as sentient.
  The conclusion, of course, is yes - so Data is
  granted rights. Hobbes would hardly be surprised
  by this conclusion, but are we? We are surround
  by Data's ancestors - computers. We have no
  trouble explaining them, and we also have no
  trouble realizing they are not sentient (capable
  of feelings). The question for materialists is
  one of prediction How would we know if/when they
  become sentient?

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• What is it about certain complicated machines
  (us) that distinguish them from other complicated
  machines (computers)? How do we understand
  choice, desire, anger, and consciousness such
  that machines can have all these
  properties/abilities? The materialist thinks we
  can give good neurophysiological descriptions.
  Don't forget, we can explain almost all the
  behavior of some organisms in this way, why not
  us? For many, this is a troubling idea. Why?

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• The most common, and most hotly debated still,
  objection to the materialist position is the
  consciousness objection. The objection goes like
  this - we are conscious and nothing else is. We
  are unlike machines in this important respect.
  Materialism, in principle, can not provide an
  explanation of the 'emergence' of consciousness
  from physical matter or the intentionality of
  mental states. Data isn't conscious (nor are
  zombies). Thus, we are not merely material
  things. Of course, those who support this
  position must provide an alternative explanation
  of consciousness - we start as a zygote, when is
  consciousness infused? How do we argue against
  Hobbes without resorting to a religious dogma?

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Idealism

• Idealism on the other hand claims that there is
  no such material world, and that the world in
  first instance is our mental process, our mind
  and thoughts. That what is perceived, and which
  behaves ordinary, is not an entity on itself, but
  was created in or by the mind.

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• If we consider the claim of Idealism to it's
  ultimate extend, we conclude that it would see on
  the world as if there was only one mind. This
  would lead to a contradictory point of view of
  solipsism, which is the vision that apart from
  our individual mind, nothing at all whatsoever
  exists, including other minds.This point of view
  of solipsism is however not a viewpoint taking in
  by any known philosopher. It would be a
  contradiction to even consider it a philosophy,
  because the activity of philosophy contains
  discussing it with other people (minds).
  According to solipsism, only one such mind
  exists, so to discuss it with other minds would
  be a contradiction.

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• Idealism however, in order to escape from this
  absurd point of view, is more commonly known and
  developed in the form of objective idealism.
  Instead of one individual mind, the world is
  considered to be in essence and primary instance
  an Absolute Idea (Hegel) or fundamental
  principle. The connection between objective
  idealism and religion can be made clear, cause
  the idea of a deity (God) is just that a
  fundamental principle or Absolute Idea.

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• Idealism as such as a whole does not oppose as
  such the fact that there is a material world,
  only that in the point of view of idealism,
  matter is not the primary substance.According to
  idealism mind (Hegel Geist (mind, spirit)) in
  the form of a fundamental principle or an
  Absolute Idea is the primary substance, matter is
  just a secondary substance, which does not exists
  independent of mind.

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Dualism

• Dualism is the ontological position that there
  are two kinds of beings (substances) matter and
  spirit both of which are eternal. It is distinct
  from monism and from theism. Historical examples
  of dualism include 1) Greek - Plato and
  Aristotle 2) Persian - Zoroastrianism 3) Indian
  - Samkhya Yoga 4) Mormonism - heterodox
  Christianity

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Metaphysics

• Dualism

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• In accounting for change and permanence Aristotle
  analyses the world in terms of form and matter,
  potentiality and actuality. Matter without form
  is pure potentiality. The source of all change is
  the Unmoved Mover, pure actuality, spirit without
  matter. The dilemma is if matter has some
  actuality without spirit then it so far is
  ordinary dualism but if matter has no actuality
  without spirit then matter would be created and
  temporal (relating to time).

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Monism

• Monism is any philosophical view which holds that
  there is unity in a given field of inquiry, where
  this is not to be expected. Thus, some
  philosophers may hold that the Universe is really
  just one thing, despite its many appearances and
  diversities or theology may support the view
  that there is one God, with many manifestations
  in different religions.

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• The following pre-Socratic philosophers described
  reality as being monistic
• Thales Water.
• Anaximander Apeiron (meaning 'the undefined
  infinite'). Reality is some, one thing, but we
  cannot know what.
• Anaximenes Air.
• Heraclitus Fire (in that everything is in
  constant flux).
• Parmenides Being. Reality is an unmoving perfect
  sphere, unchanging, undivided.

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theism

• a belief in the existence of God or gods.
• belief in one god as creator and ruler of the
  universe, without rejection of special
  revelation.
• Belief in the existence of a divine reality
  usually referring to monotheism (one God), as
  opposed to pantheism (all is God), polytheism
  (many gods), and atheism (without God).

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Dualism

• The appeal of dualism lies in it being the
  nearest logical alternative to material and
  spiritual monism which avoids the criticisms
  raised against both. It also offers a solution to
  the problem of evil generally by locating the
  problem in matter vs. spirit.

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Objections to its appeal

• 1) if the soul is eternal how can it go through
  a unique event, for example growth in knowledge,
  liberation or attainment of heaven?  2) if the
  soul is inherently good and eternal and
  independent of the body why is it in an evil
  body? 3) One can conceive of an evil spirit
  (the devil) or of evil not based in bodily needs
  (Eden).

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Dualistic attitudes are reflected in popular
theism in several ways

• 1) the world is evil one should flee it or
  avoid it - monastic withdrawal,  ascetic distrust
  of the sensuous, celibacy as a higher spiritual
  state 
• 2) the world is corruptible especially in the
  sins of the flesh and must be guarded against (vs
  evil as disregard of reason)
• 3) the world is morally neutral in its basic
  institutional structures personal spirituality
  is all that is needed 
• 4) the world is good as the creation of God but
  not as good as the world to come - heaven.

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Two forms of dualism

• 1) ordinary dualism in which matter is eternal
  and independent of spirit - Plato 2) dependent
  dualism in which matter is eternal and dependent
  on spirit - Aristotle. The first argument against
  materialism holds against ordinary dualism.