Animal Form

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Animal Form Function
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Chapter 40

• Levels of organization
• Tissues (group of cells with common structure
  function)
• Organs (functional units of tissues)
• Organ systems (organs that work together)

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• 4 main types of tissue
• 1) Epithelial
• Sheets of tightly packed cells, covers the body,
  lines organs, and protects
• One side is always bound to a basement membrane
• Other side faces air or fluid environment
• 2) Connective
• Supports and binds
• Cartilage, tendons, ligaments, bone, blood

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• 3) Muscle
• Body movement
• Muscle filaments are made of actin myosin
  (proteins)
• The fibers contract when stimulated by a nerve
• Most abundant tissue in animals
• 3 types
• Skeletal used for movement is voluntary
• Smooth found in organs is involuntary
• Cardiac in heart is involuntary

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• 4) Nervous
• Functional unit is a nerve cell (neuron)
• Senses stimuli transmits signals from one part
  of the body to another

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• 2 major systems that coordinate and control the
  tissue, organ, and organ systems of animals
• 1) Endocrine
• Hormones are chemical messengers
• Carried in the blood to all parts of the body
• Hormones have specific functions, but only with
  cells with specific receptors
• Come from glands (pituitary, thyroid, etc.)
• 2) Nervous
• Transmit information between locations
• 3 types of cells receive nerve impulses neurons,
  muscle cells, endocrine cells

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• Homeostasis constant internal environment
• The body has a set point (i.e. body temp),
  sensors to detect any variation in the set pt,
  physiological responses to help return to the set
  pt

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• Physiological responses
• 1) Negative feedback loop
• Respond to stimulus in a way that reduces the
  stimulus
• Ex in response to exercise, the body temp rises,
  which initiates sweating
• 2) Positive feedback loop
• A variable triggers mechanisms that amplify
  rather than reverse the change
• Ex childbirth stimulates uterine contractions

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• Thermoregulation how animals maintain their
  internal temperature
• Endotherms (mammals/birds) use heat generated by
  metabolism (warm blooded)
• Ectotherms (invertebrates, fish, reptiles) use
  heat from external sources (cold blooded)

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Chapter 41

• 4 classes of essential nutrients
• 1) Essential amino acids
• 12 of 20
• 2) Essential fatty acids
• 3) Vitamins
• 4) Minerals

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• 4 main stages of food processing
• 1) Ingestion
• Taking in food
• 2) Digestion
• Breaking down food
• 3) Absorption
• Cells take up small molecules
• 4) Elimination
• Passing of undigested material

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• Simple animals utilize a gastrovascular canal
• Single opening for food and wastes
• Worms hydras use this
• Complex animals use alimentary canals
• One-way digestive tubes that have 2 openings

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• Movement of food through the DS is controlled by
  peristalsis
• Waves of contractions by smooth muscle
• Food is taken into the mouth
• Releases saliva
• Aids in swallowing
• Begins chemical digestion
• Contains amylase (breaks down starch glycogen)

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• The chewed food forms a BOLUS
• The bolus then enters the pharynx (throat)
• During swallowing, the EPIGLOTTIS covers the
  trachea so food goes down the ESOPHAGUS
• Esophagus moves food to the stomach through
  peristalsis

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• Stomach stores food and secretes gastric
  juices
• 1) Hydrochloric acid
• pH of 2
• Breaks down meat and plants
• Kills most bacteria
• 2) Pepsin
• Hydrolyzes proteins

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• End result of the stomach work is acid chyme
  which is moved to the small intestine
• Duodenum major site of chemical digestion (1st
  section of SI)
• Works with pancreas liver
• Pancreas produces a buffer
• Liver produces bile (fat breakdown)

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• Chemical breakdown in duodenum
• 1) Carbs
• amylases
• 2) Proteins
• Pepsin/trypsin
• 3) Nucleic Acids
• Hydrolysis of DNA/RNA
• 4) Fats
• Bile/lipase

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Chapter 48

• Nerve cell neuron
• Composed of
• Cell body contains nucleus organelles
• Dendrites cell extensions that receive incoming
  messages
• Axons transmit messages
• Many axons are covered by a fatty myelin sheath
• Speeds rate of transmission

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• Synapse junction between neurons
• Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that
  bind to receptors
• Sensory receptors
• Collect information about the world outside the
  body as well as inside (ex rods/cones of eyes
  pressure receptors in the skin)

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• Sensory neurons
• Transmit information from sensors to the
  brain/spinal cord
• Interneurons
• Connect sensory motor neurons

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Chapter 49

• Evolution of nervous system
• Cnidarians have a nerve net
• Cephalization clusters sensory neurons
  interneurons
• Flatworms have a small brain longitudinal nerve
  cord (simplest Central Nervous System)
• Annelids (earthworm) arthropods have a ventral
  nerve cord
• Vertebrates have a hollow dorsal nerve cord

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• Reflex
• Simple automatic nerve circuit in response to a
  stimulus
• Ex The stimulus is detected by a receptor in the
  skin, conveyed via a sensory neuron to an
  interneuron in the spinal cord, which synapses
  with a motor neuron, which will cause the
  effector, a muscle cell, to contract

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• Conscious thought is not required in a reflex
• Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) circulates through a
  central canal in the spinal cord ventricles of
  the brain cushions the brain spinal cord

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• Gilia support neurons
• Astrocytes (support neurons)
• Oligodendrocytes (form myelin sheaths in CNS)
• Schwann cells (form sheaths in PNS)
• Gray matter
• Mainly neuron cell bodies unmyelinated axons
• White matter
• White due to the myelin sheaths

• Gilia support neurons
• Astrocytes (support neurons)
• Oligodendrocytes (form myelin sheaths in CNS)
• Schwann cells (form sheaths in PNS)
• Gray matter
• Mainly neuron cell bodies unmyelinated axons
• White matter
• White due to the myelin sheaths

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Main Brain Anatomy

• 1) Brainstem
• Medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain
• Controls homeostatic functions breathing rate
• Conducts sensory motor signals between the
  spinal cord and higher brain centers
• Regulates arousal and sleep

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• 2) Cerebellum
• Coordinates motor, perceptual, cognitive
  functions
• Balance

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• 3) Cerebrum
• Largest part of the brain
• Has left/right hemispheres
• Covering of gray matter over white matter
• Information processing
• Thinking, learning, remembering

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Other brain parts

• Thalamus
• Main center through which sensory motor
  information passes to from the cerebrum
• Hypothalamus
• Regulates homeostasis
• Feeding, fighting, fleeing, reproducing,
  circadian rhythms
• Cerebral cortex
• controls voluntary movement cognitive functions
• Corpus callosum
• Enables communication between left/right
  hemispheres

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Chapter 51

• Behavior
• What an animal does and how it does it
• Result of genetics environment
• Essential for survival reproduction
• Subject to natural selection
• Ethology
• Study of animal behavior

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• 2 levels of analysis in the study of behavior
• 1) Proximate
• The how questions include effects of
  heredity, genetic-environmental interactions,
  sensory-motor mechanisms
• 2) Ultimate
• The why questions studies of origin of
  behavior, change over time, reproductive
  success

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• Innate behavior
• Developmentally fixed unlearned
• Nursing in mammals
• Fixed action pattern (FAP)
• Sequence of unlearned acts that is largely
  unchangeable carried to completion when started
• Triggered by sign stimuli
• EX male stickle-back fish which attack red
  objects the red object is the sign stimulus,
  attack is FAP

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• Kinesis
• Simple change in activity in response to stimulus
• Ex pillbugs to moisture
• Taxis
• Automatic movement toward or away from a stimulus
• Ex moths to light
• Migration
• Complex
• Attributed to detection of Earths magnetic field
  or visual cues

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• Circadian rhythms
• Occur daily
• Signal
• A behavior that causes a change in the behavior
  of another basis for animal communication
• 1) Pheromones chemical signals
• 2) Visual Signals warning flashes, markings
• 3) Auditory Signals sounds, screeches, growls
• 4) Waggle dance done by honeybees
• http//www.youtube.com/watch?v-7ijI-g4jHg

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51.2

• Learning
• Modification of behavior based on experiences
• Imprinting
• Combination of learned innate components that
  are limited to a sensitive period in an organisms
  life and is generally irreversible
• Konrad Lorenz
• http//www.youtube.com/watch?v2UIU9XH-mUIfeature
  related

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• Habituation
• Loss of responsiveness to stimuli
• Simple form of learning
• Cognitive map
• Internal representation of spatial relationship
  among objects in an animals surroundings

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• Associative learning
• Ability of many animals to associate one feature
  of their environment with another feature
• Two types

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• 1) Classical Conditioning
• Learning to associate certain stimuli with reward
  or punishment
• Pavlov

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• 2) Operant conditioning
• Occurs as an animal learns to associate one of
  its behaviors with a reward or punishment
• B.F. Skinner

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Skinner Box
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51.3

• Both environment and genetics contribute to
  behavior

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51.4

• Survival and reproductive success
• Foraging behavior
• Not only eating, but mechanisms used in searching
  for, recognizing, capturing food
• Optimal foraging model
• A compromise between benefits of nutrition cost
  of obtaining food

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• Mating systems varies
• 1) Promiscuous no strong pair-bonds
• 2) Monogamous one male/one female
• 3) Polygamous one individual mating with others

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51.5

• Altruism
• When animals behave in ways that reduce their
  individual fitness but increases the fitness of
  other individuals in the population
• Ex blue jay giving an alarm call
• Inclusive fitness
• Total effect an individual has on proliferating
  its genes by producing its own offspring
• Provides aid that enables other close relatives
  to produce offspring
• kin selection