Ultimate AP BIOLOGY REVIEW

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Ultimate AP BIOLOGY REVIEW
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Question 1

• Isotopes Isotopes are atoms with the same number
  of protons but differ in number of neutrons
  e.g., a carbon atom has six protons but may have
  more or less than usual six neutrons
• Valence Shell Outer shell of an atom. Atoms with
  few electrons in their valence shell tend to have
  more free electrons since these valence electrons
  are more loosely bound to the nucleus.

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Continue 1

• Ionic Bonds Ionic bonds form when electrons are
  transferred from one atom to another. Losing or
  gaining electrons, atoms participating in ionic
  reactions fill outer shells, and are more stable.
• Covalent Bonds Covalent bonds result when two
  atoms share electrons so each atom has octet of
  electrons in the outer shell. . Structural
  formulas represent shared atom as a line between
  two atoms e.g., single covalent bond (H-H),
  double covalent bond (OO)Three dimensional shape
  of molecules is not represented by structural
  formulas but shape is critical in understanding
  the biological action of molecules action of
  insulin, HIV receptors, etc.

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Question 2

• Hydrogen Bond forms between
• slightly positive hydrogen atom of one molecule
  and slightly negative atom in another or the same
  molecule.

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Question 3

• pH is a measure of
• How acidic or basic a solution is.
• Acidic Solution has more H ions
• Basic Solution has more OH ions

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Question 4

• Buffer is
• keep pH steady and within normal limits in living
  organisms..

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Question 5

• Isomer is
• Are molecules or molecular compounds that are
  similar in that they have the same molecular
  formula, however have different arrangements of
  the atoms or groups of atoms (functional groups)
  involved.
• Example Fructose and glucose (C6H12O6) same
  molecular formula but different arrangements

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Question 6

• -OH Hydroxyl
• CO Carbonyl
• -COOH Carboxyl
• -NH2 Amino group
• -SH Sulfhydryl group
• -OPO3 Phosphate group

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Question 7

• Hydrolysis Reaction
• Reaction that breaks down compounds by the
  addition of H2O
• Dehydration synthesis reaction
• Reaction in which two compounds are brought
  together with H2O released as a product
• Endergonic reaction
• A reaction that requires the input of energy to
  occur
• ABenergy? C
• Exergonic reaction
• A reaction that gives off energy as a product
• AB?Energy C
• Redox reaction
• A reaction involving the transfer of electrongs

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Question 8

• General formula for monosaccharides are CnH2nOn
• Example C6H12O6 (Glucose)
• Simple Sugar
• Function Sugar found in Nucleic Acid
• Glucose Sugar for the body
• ATP Cell Energy

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Question 9

• Polysaccharides Carbohydrate containing 3 or
  more monosaccharides
• Storage form of energy
• Structural material in and around cells
• Difference between
• Glycogen Glucose molecules linked together
  (animal energy storage)
• Starch Glucose linked together (Plants energy
  storage)
• Cellulose composed of glucose molecules
  formation of cell walls
• Chitin Glucose molecules joined together-
  Arthopods exoskeleton

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Question 10

• Structural Components of the following
• Fats Lipids made by combining glycerol and three
  fatty acids. Used as long-term energy stores in
  cells
• Phospholipids is a lipid formed by combining a
  glycerol molecule with two fatty acids and a
  phosphate group bilayered structure component
  in cell membrane
• Steroids are lipids composed of four carbon
  rings that look like chicken wire.
• Examples Cholesterol, sex hormones

?Cholesterol
Testosterone ?
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Question 11

• Protein Chains
• Primary Structure Sequence of amino acids to
  form a polypeptide chain (protein)
• Secondary Structure 3-D arrangement of a protein
  caused by hydrogen bonding at regular intervals
  along the polypeptide backbone
• Tertiary Structure 3-D arrangement of protein
  caused by interactions among the various R groups
  of the amino acids involved.
• Quaternary structure The arrangement of separate
  polypeptide subunits into a single protein

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Question 12

• Enzymes are proteins that act as organic catalyst
  (speed up reaction by lowering the energy
  (activation energy) needed for the reaction to
  take place but are not used up in the reaction.

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Continue 12

• Induced-fit model of enzyme-substrate
  interaction describes the active site of an
  enzyme as specific for a particular substrate
  that fits its shape.
• Allosteric enzyme An allosteric enzyme is an
  enzyme that contains a region to which small,
  regulatory molecules ("effectors") may bind in
  addition to and separate from the substrate
  binding site and thereby affect the catalytic
  activity. On binding the effector, the catalytic
  activity of the enzyme towards the substrate may
  be enhanced, in which case the effector is an
  activator, or reduced, in which case it is a
  de-activator or inhibitor

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Continue 12

• Four ways enzymes can be affected
• Temperature
• pH
• Concentration of the substrate
• Concentration of the enzyme involved

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Question 13

• Prokaryotic Simple cell
• No nucleus
• Nucleoid Genetic material
• No membrane bond organelles
• Eukaryotic is more complex
• Nucleus
• Membrane bound organelles

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Question 14

• Ribosomes protein synthesis
• Smooth ER lipids synthesis, detoxification, and
  carbohydrate metabolism
• Rough ER Ribosome are attached proteins are
  produced
• Golgi apparatus proteins, lipids, and other
  macromolecules sent to the Golgi to be modified
  by the addition of sugars and other molecules to
  form glycoproteins products form vesicles
• Mitochondria powerhouseATP is made here
• Lysosome Digestion center
• Nucleus Control center, contains DNA (genetic
  material)
• Vacuole Storage (Plants have a larger structure)
• Chloroplast Plants only site for photosynthesis

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Question 15

• Fluid Mosaic Model the membrane consist of a
  phospholipid bilayer with proteins of various
  lengths and sizes interspersed with cholesterol
  among the phospholipids.
• Two types of proteins in the cell membrane
• Integral proteins implanted within the bilayer
  and can extend partway or all the way across the
  membrane
• Peripheral proteins such as receptor proteins,
  which are not implanted in the bilayer and are
  often attached to integral proteins of the
  membrane

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Question 16

• Difference between
• Diffusion movement of molecules down their
  concentration gradient with the use of energy
  (area of higher concentration to lower
  concentration)
• Osmosis movement of water down its concentration
  gradient (passive diffusion). Going from a higher
  water concentration to area of lower water
  concentration
• Active Transport is the movement of a particle
  across a selectively permeable membrane against
  the concentration gradient (Going from low to
  high concentration)

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Question 17

• Hyperosmotic (Hypertonic) moving of water from a
  high solute in the environment to area of low
  solute concentration to environment. The water
  will move out of the cell

60 water 40 solute
40 water 60 solute
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Continue 17

• Hypoosmotic (hypotonic) Is when the solute
  concentration is more in the cell than outside
  the cell. The water will move in of the cell

40 Water 60 Solute
60 water 40 solute
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Continue 17

• Isosmotic (Isotonic) The solute and water is on
  the same on both sides

50 solute 50 water
50 solute 50 water
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Question 18

• Phases of Mitosis
• Prophase Nuclear envelope disappears, chromatids
  appear, centrioles moves to poles
• Metaphase chromosomes move toward the center
  Spindle are attached to the centromere
• Anaphase Chromatids separate and move toward the
  poles
• Telophase Chromatids move toward each poles,
  nuclear envelope reappears, cytokinesis begins

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Question 19

• Mitosis is the dividing of body cells
• Daughter cells will have the exact number
  chromosomes as the parent cells
• Meiosis is the dividing of sex cells
• Daughter cells will have half the number of
  chromosomes as the parent cells

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Question 20

• Cell cycle includes
• Interphase the stage that prepares the cell for
  the cell division
• Mitosis is the division of the nucleus
• Cytokinesis division of the cytoplasm

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Control Mechanismp. 89 and 90 in paperback

• This is the way in which the cell has a type of
  check and balance system that ensures the cell is
  correct
• Checkpoints
• Density-dependent inhibition
• Growth Factors
• Cyclin and Protein kinases
• You may want to go back and look over this
  information

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Question 21
Mitosis Meiosis
Number of cells 2 diploid cells 4 haploid cells
Crossing over No Yes-Prophase I
Number of phases 1 (IPMATC) 2 (IPMATC PMATC) No Interphase in the second phase
Types of cells Body (Somatic) Cells Sex (Gamete) Cells
Number of chromosomes Same number of chromosomes as the parent cell Diploid Different number of chromosomes as the parent cell Haploid
Genetics Genetically Identical to the parent cell Genetically different to the parent cell
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Question 22

• The difference between meiosis I and meiosis II
  is that the cell does not go through interphase
  (Chromsome replication) during meiosis II. This
  will allow the cells to have half the number of
  chromsomes (haploid).

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Question 23

• Crossing over is when the homologous chromosomes
  match up during prophase I of meiosis,
  complementary pieces from the two homologous
  chromosomes wrap around each other and are
  exchanged between the chromosomes.

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Question 24

• Three parts to a nucleotide are5 carbon sugar,
  phosphate, and nitrogen base
• Serves as a puzzle piece to the nucleic acid
  strand (RNA or DNA)
• Adenine and guanine are purines
• Cytosine and Thymine are pyrimidine
• Base pairing states that Adenine will pair up
  with thymine and Cytosine will pair up with
  Guanine (AppleTart and GoCart)

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Question 25

• DNA replication occurs during the S-phase
  (interphase), semiconservative (which the one
  strands serves a template)
• Built in the 5 to 3 direction
• DNA helicase will unzip the strand by breaking
  the hydrogen bonds producing a replication fork
• Specific regions along DNA strand serve as primer
  sites that signal where replication should
  originate
• DNA polymerase enzyme superstar binds to the
  primer site and adds nucleotides to the growing
  DNA chain (will only add to the 3 end)

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Continue 25 (REPLICATION)

• The DNA polymerase only being used on the 3
  creates a problem which only allows the one
  strand to add nucleotides this is known as the
  leading strand.
• The other strand is known as the lagging strand
• The lagging strand consist of tiny pieces called
  Okazaki fragments, which are later connected by
  an enzyme called DNA ligase to produce the
  completed double stranded DNA molecule
• RNA primer allows for the RNA strand to bind to
  the DNA strand (this occurs during replication)

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Question 26

• DNA can only stay in the nucleus so it must send
  its instructions out to the cell. This is done by
  the second nucleic acid (RNA).
• Because DNA and RNA have very similar language it
  allows it to be accomplished.

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Continue Question 26

• Transcription is the process of taking DNA to a
  RNA strand (Occurs in the nucleus)
• This is done by three steps
• Initiation When RNA polymerase attaches to the
  promoter region of a DNA strand
• Elongation a promoter region recognition site
  that shows the polymerase where transcription
  will begin. Once RNA polymerase works by adding
  the appropriate RNA nucleotide to the 3 of the
  growing strand
• Termination tells the polymerase should
  conclude

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Continue Question 26

• Translation process by which the mRNA specified
  sequence of amino acids is lined up on a ribosome
  for protein synthesis (mRNA ? DNA)
• Each amino acid carries a specific
  nucleotides/codes (codon)
• Start Codon AUG
• Stop Codon UAA, UAG, UGA
• Anticodon is the complementary to the codon
  (tRNA) that has been incorporated into the
  growing protein

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Question 27

• Define the following
• Promoter a base sequence that signals the start
  site of genes transcription this is where RNA
  polymerase binds to the begin the process
• Operator a short sequence near the promoter
  that assists in transcription by interacting with
  regulatory proteins
• Operon promoter/operator pair that services
  multiple genes
• Well known example is the lac operon
• Repressor protein that prevents the binding of
  RNA polymerase to the promoter site
• Enhancer DNA region also known as regulator
  that is located thousands of bases away frm the
  promoter
• Inducer a molecule that binds to and inactivates
  a repressor

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Continue Question 27

• Structural Gene one that specifies the amino
  acid sequence of a polypeptide chain

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Question 28

• Energy is
• The ability to do work

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Question 29

• Entropy is the measure of amount of energy that
  is not available for work

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Question 30

• ATP power cellular work the energy currency of
  cells (adenosine triphosphate) Functions1.
  CHEMICAL WORK - Supplies energy needed to make
  macromolecules that make up the cell (and
  organism)2. TRANSPORT WORK - Supplies energy
  needed to pump substances across the cell
  membrane3. MECHANICAL WORK - supplies energy
  needed to make muscles contract and other
  cellular parts to move (flagella)

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Question 31

• Glycolysis
• a) a ten-step process that occurs in the
  cytoplasmb) converts each molecule of glucose to
  two molecules of pyruvic acid (a 3-carbon
  molecule)c) an anaerobic process - proceeds
  whether or not O2 is present O2 is not
  requiredd) net yield of 2 ATP per glucose
  moleculee) net yield of 2 NADH per glucose (NADH
  is nicotine adenine dinucleotide, a co-enzyme
  that serves as a carrier for H ions liberated as
  glucose is oxidized.)

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Continue31

• Kreb Cycle occurs in the mitochondria
• a) occurs in the inner mitochondrial matrixb)
  the acetyl group detaches from the co-enzyme A
  and enters the reaction cyclec) an aerobic
  process will proceed only in the presence of
  O2d) net yield of 2 ATP per glucose molecule
  (per 2 acetyl CoA)e) net yield of 6 NADH and 2
  FADH2 (FAD serves the same purpose as NAD)f) in
  this stage of cellular respiration, the oxidation
  of glucose to CO2 is completed
• GO BACK AND LOOK AT YOUR CYCLE

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Continue Question 31

• Electron Transport System occurs in the
  mitochondria
• a) consists of a series of enzymes on the inner
  mitochondrial membraneb) electrons are released
  from NADH and from FADH2 and as they are passed
  along the series of enzymes, they give up energy
  which is used to fuel a process called
  chemiosmosis by which H ions are actively
  transported across the inner mitochondrial
  membrane into the outer mitochondrial
  compartment. The H ions then flow back through
  special pores in the membrane, a process that is
  thought to drive the process of ATP synthesis.c)
  net yield of 34 ATP per glucose moleculed) 6 H2O
  are formed when the electrons unite with O2 at
  the end of electron transport chain. Note
  This is the function of oxygen in living
  organisms!

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Question 32

• Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm
• Kreb Cycle occurs in the mitochondria
• Electron Transport Chain occurs in the
  mitochondria

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Question 33

• Chemosismosis electrons are released from NADH
  and from FADH2 and as they are passed along the
  series of enzymes, they give up energy which is
  used to fuel a process called chemiosmosis by
  which H ions are actively transported across the
  inner mitochondrial membrane into the outer
  mitochondrial compartment.

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Question 34

• Photophosphorylation ATP a second product made
  during the light reaction

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Question 35

• Fermentation an anaerobic respiration in which
  glucose is broken down to pyruvate during
  glycolysis. There is only a net gain of 2 ATP.
  There will be no Kreb Cycle or Electron Transport
  Chain
• Two types of Fermentation
• Lactic Acid Fermentation The production of
  lactic acid without oxygen
• Examples Milk products and muscles being oxygen
  deficient
• Alcohol Fermentation The production of ethyl
  alcohol and carbon dioxide
• Examples Yeast (Bread and Alcoholic Beverages)

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Questions 36

• Two parts to photosynthesis are
• Light (light dependent) reaction Occurs in the
  thylakoid membrane(contains chlorophyll)
• Inputs to the light reactions are water and light
• Products ATP, NADPH, and O2
• Oxygen produced in the light reactions comes from
  H2O and not CO2
• Light Independent Reaction (dark reaction)
  Occurs in the stroma
• Inputs into the Calvin cycle are NADPH, ATP, and
  CO2
• More ATP is used than NADPH creating a need for
  cylic photophosphorylation to create enough ATP
  for reaction
• The carbon of the sugar produced in
  photosynthesis comes from the CO2 of the Calvin
  Cycle

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Question 37

• Transpiration is the process of water evaporating
  out of the leaves. When the water goes out of the
  leaves the water the other parts of plants
  replace the water through the process known as
  the Cohesion Tension Theory

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Question 38

• Most photosynthesis takes place in the mesophyll
  portion of the leaf

Mesophyll
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Question 39

• Aneuploidy The fusing of an abnormal gamete with
  a normal one can lead to the production of
  offspring with an abnormal number of chromosomes
• Polyploidy a condition in which an individual
  has more than the normal number of sets of
  chromosomes
• Structural Alternations of chromosomes are
  mutations. Chromosomal mutation which include
  inversion, deletion, duplications, translocation

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Continue Question 39

• What is the difference between linked and
  unlinked genes?
• Linked Genes group of genes on the same
  chromosome
• If genes are close enough then there is a higher
  probability of crossing over
• Unlinked Genes Genes that are not on the same
  chromosome
• Only together if the Law of Independent
  Assortment (Mendels Law)

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Question 40

• Restriction Enzyme are enzymes that cut DNA at
  specific nucleotide sequence.
• Gel Electrophoresis is a technique used to
  separate and examine DNA fragments. This is when
  restriction enzymes are used and then separated
  by electrophoresis. The pieces of DNA are
  separated on the basis of size with the help of
  an electric charge. This technique can be used to
  sequence DNA and determine the order in which the
  nucleotide appear.

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Continue Question 40

• Gel Electrophoresis can be used in forensics.
  This technique require the use of Restriction
  fragment length polymorphism (RFLP). DNA is
  specific of each individual and when it is mixed
  with restriction enzyme, different combination of
  RFLPs will be obtained from person to person

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Continue Question 40

• Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) can be used
  during Gel Electrophoresis but can also be used
  to sequence DNA
• PCR will amplify the gene to be studied
• PCR will allow scientist to study genetic
  disorders and amplify trace amounts of DNA found
  at crime scences.

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Question 41

• Applications of DNA technology
• Recombinant DNA contains two or more different
  sources
• Cloning slow process by which a desired sequence
  of DNA is copied numerous times
• Gel Electrophoresis technique used to separate
  DNA according to size (smallfaster). DNA moves
  from - to
• Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) produces large
  quantities of sequence in short amount of time

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Question 42

• Mutations Genetic Mistakes
• Three types of muations are
• Gene Mutation Substitutes one bases for another
• This can include insertion, deletion, and point
  mutations
• Chromosomal Mutation The entire chromosome is
  messed up
• This includes inversion, duplication,
  translocation, deletion
• Frameshift Mutation either a base is added or
  deleted which causes a change in the reading
  frame

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Question 43

• Three causes of mutation
• Radiation X-rays and gamma waves
• Viruses
• Random Age is one example if a woman pregnant
  over 40 has a greater chance for Down Syndrome

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Question 44

• Difference between Viruses are protein coat,
  shape (popcorn ball compare to Apollo lunar
  lander), and Nucleic acid

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Question 45

• Viral Reproduction
• Lytic cycle reproduction occurs, cells burst
• Lysogenic cycle reproduction does not
  immediately occur (dormancy)

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Question 46

• Hardy-Weinberg Conditions
• No mutations
• No gene flow (immigration or emigration)
• No genetic drift (populations must be kept large)
• No natural selection (All organisms have the
  ability to survive and reproduce)
• Random Mating

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Question 47

• Hardy Weinberg equation
• p2 2 pq q2 1
• p2 Homozygous Dominant
• 2pq Heterozygous Dominant
• q2 Homozygous Recessive
• p. 144-145 you may need to go back how to
  answer Hardy-Weinberg equation

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Question 48

• Prezygotic barriers
• Behavioral Isolation Different courtship rituals
• Temporal Isolation Reproduces at different times
• Mechanical Isolation reproductive structures
  that does not allow reproduction
• Gametic Mortality Inability between sperm and
  egg
• Ecological Isolation potential mates that can
  reproduce but are not in the same area
• Postzygotic barriers feterilization takes place
  forming a hybrid

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Question 49

• Allopatric Speciation inbreeding ceases because
  some sort of barrier separates a single
  population into two (an area with no food, a
  mountain, etc.). The populations evolve
  independently, and if they change enough, then
  even if the barrier is removed, they can not
  interbreed

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Continue Question 49

• Sympatric speciation Interbreeding ceases even
  though no physical barrier prevents it.
• Two several forms
• Polyploidy a conditions in which an individual
  has more than the normal number of sets of
  chromosomes
• Balanced polymorphism this condition can lead to
  speciation if two variants diverge enough to no
  longer be able to interbreed

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Question 50

• Microevolution Evolution on a species level
• Macroevolution Evolution on a large scale

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Question 51

• Genetic Drift
• 1. Genetic drift refers to changes in allele
  frequencies of a gene pool due to chance, more
  often in small populations2. Genetic drift
  occurs when founders start a new population, or
  after a genetic bottleneck with interbreeding.

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Question 52

• Gene Flow
• 1. Gene flow (gene migration) is the movement of
  alleles among populations by migration of
  breeding individuals.2. Gene flow can increase
  variation within a population by introducing
  novel alleles 3. Continued gene flow decreases
  diversity among populations, causing gene pools
  to become similar.4. Gene flow among populations
  can prevent speciation from occurring.

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Question 53

• Fitness Describe the ability of an organism to
  survive and reproduce (produce fertile offspring)

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Questions 54

• Natural Selection The ability of the organisms
  to survive and reproduce
• Three conditions of natural selection
• Variation a population must exhibit phenotypic
  variance difference between individuals
• Heritability if a trait cannot be inherited, it
  cannot be selected for or against
• Differential reproductive success measure how
  many offspring you produce that survive relative
  to how many the other individuals in your
  population produce

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Question 55

• Protist is a eukaryotic
• Autotrophic or heterotrophic
• Multicellular or unicellular
• Mostly asexual
• Mostly aquatic
• Motile or nonmotile

Ex Euglena, Amoeba, Paramecium, Algae, Slime
Molds
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Question 56

• The domain is larger than the kingdom on the
  hierarchical level of classification.
• Domain is based on molecular classification
• Three domain system
• Archae no nucleus (prokaryote), cell wall
  without peptioglycan, lives in extreme
  environment
• Bacteria- No nucleus (prokaryote), cell wall with
  peptioglycan, all other bacteria
• Eukarya- Nucleus (eukaryote), some with cell
  wall, motile/nonmotile

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Question 57

• Six Kingdoms
• Protista Heterotrophic or Autotrophic
• Unicellular or Multicellular
• Mostly aquatic
• Mostly asexual
• Motile or Nonmotile
• The endosymbiosis theory explains how organisms
  developed organelles

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ContinueQuestion 57

• Fungi
• Heterotrophic
• Unicellular or Multicellular
• Mostly terrestrial
• Asexual or sexual
• Nonmotile
• Important decomposers in the environment
• Ex Mushrooms, molds, yeasts

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ContinueQuestion 57

• Plantae
• Multicellular
• Autotrophic
• Mostly terrestrial
• Asexual or Sexual
• Nonmotile

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ContinueQuestion 57

• Animal
• Multicellular
• Heterotrophic
• Terrestrial and Aquatic
• Sexual (a few are asexual)
• Motile (a few are nonmotile--sessile)

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Continue Question 57

• Archaebacteria
• Prokaryotic
• Lives in Extreme Environments
• Cell wall made up of peptioglycan
• Eubacteria
• Prokarytic
• Cell wall made up of peptioglycan
• Normal Bacteria

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Question 58

• Photoautotroph An organism capable of
  synthesizing its own food from inorganic
  substances using light as an energy source.
• Chemoautotroph An organism (typically a
  bacterium or a protozoan ) that obtains energy
  through chemical process, which is by the
  oxidation of electron donating molecules from the
  environment, rather than by photosynthesis.

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ContinueQuestion 58

• Chemoheterotroph An organism deriving energy by
  ingesting intermediates or building blocks that
  it is incapable of creating on its own.
• Photoheterotroph An organism that depends on
  light for most of its energy and principally on
  organic compounds for its carbon.

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Question 59

• Eumetazoa tissues and organs present nervous
  system with neurons
• Acoelomate no body cavity body double-walled
  sac surrounding digestive cavity single opening
  to outside characteristic of flatworms
• Pseudocoelomateno body cavity body
  double-walled sac surrounding digestive cavity
  single opening to outside characteristic of
  flatworms

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ContinueQuestion 59

• Coelomates have body cavity
• Protostomes Mouth develops first
• Deuterostomes Anus develops first

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Protostome mouth develops firstDeuterostome
anus develops first
Ectoderm outside layer, skinMesoderm middle
layer, musclesEndoderm inside layer, gut
Coelom body cavityPseudocoelom - partial body
cavity
Radial Symmetry - Body parts arranged in a
wheel Bilateral Symmetry right and left sides
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Question 60

• Three parts to a plant include
• Roots
• Shoots
• Leaves

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Question 61

• Three basic tissue include
• Ground tissue that makes up most of the body of
  the plant, is found between the dermal and
  vascular tissue. It can be divided into three
  cell types collenchyma, parenchyma, an
  dsclerenchyma
• Vascular tissue
• Xylem support structure that strengthens the
  plant and functions as a passageway for the
  transport water and minerals from the soil
• Phloem Function as the highway for plants in the
  assisting of sugars from one place to another.

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Continue Question 61

• Dermal Tissue provides the protective outer
  covering for plants.
• Skin of the plant is its epidermis
• Within the epidermis is guard cells which control
  the opening and closing of gaps called stomata
  which is vital to photosynthesis.

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Question 62

• Alternation of generation Plant life cycle, so
  named because during the cycle, plants sometimes
  exist as a diploid organism and at other times as
  a haploid organisms.

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Question 63

• Primary Growth Occurs in the apical meristem
  which is the region that lengthens the plants.
• Secondary Growth Occurs in the lateral meristem
  which causes the plant to increase in width

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Question 64

• Transpiration Is the process of moving water
  through the plant. The water is removed from the
  plant through evaporation out of the leaves.
  Transpiration creates a negative pressure in the
  leaves and xylem tissue due to the evaporative
  loss of water. Water molecules display molecular
  attraction (cohesion) and other water molecules,
  in effect creating a single united water molecule
  that runs the length of the plant.

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Continue.Question 64

• Translocation the transport of carbohydrates
  through the phloem. The movement of the sugar
  into the phloem creates a driving force because
  it establishes a concentration gradient. The
  gradient leads to the passive diffusion of water
  into the phloem, causing an increase in the
  pressure of these cells.

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Question 65

• Xylem support structure that strengthens the
  plant and functions as a passageway for the
  transport water and minerals from the soil
• Phloem Function as the highway for plants in the
  assisting of sugars from one place to another.

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Question 66

• Abscisic acid babysitter hormone It makes sure
  that seeds do not germinate too early, inhibits
  cell growth, and stimulates the closing of the
  stomata to make sure the plant maintains enough
  water.
• Auxin (Important AP Biology exam hormone
  selection) elongation of stems, and plants a
  role in phototropism and gravitropism

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Continue Question 66

• Cytokinins promotes cell division and leaf
  enlargement. Supermarkets use this to keep
  veggies of fresh. Fountain of youth hormone
• Ethylene Initiates fruit ripening and causes
  flowers and leaves to drop from trees
• Gibberellins Stem elongation. Think Grow when
  comes to this hormone. It is also thought to
  induce the growth of dormant seeds, buds, and
  flowers

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Question 67

• Phototropism plants growth response to light.
  Auxin is the hormone in charge of stem elongation
  here. The stem elongation occurs at the apical
  meristem

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Question 68

• Photoperiodism the response by a plant to change
  in the length of the day.

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Question 69

• Short-day plants Exposure to a night longer than
  a certain number of hours.
• Flowering end of the summer to end of the winter
• Example Poinsettas
• Long-day plants exposure to a night shorter than
  a certain number of hours
• Flowering Late spring to early summer
• Example Spinach

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Question 70

• Four major tissue in animals include
• Epithelial is made of closely-packed cells
  arranged in flat sheets. Epithelia form the
  surface of the skin, line the various cavities
  and tubes of the body, and cover the internal
  organs.

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• Muscle Three kinds of muscle are found in
  vertebrates
• Skeletal muscle is made of long fibers whose
  contraction provides the force of locomotion and
  other voluntary body movements.
• Smooth muscle lines the walls of the hollow
  structures of the body, such as the intestine,
  urinary bladder, uterus, and blood vessels. Its
  contraction, which is involuntary, reduces the
  size of these hollow organs.
• The heart is made of cardiac muscle.

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• Connective Tissue
• The cells of connective tissue are embedded in a
  great amount of extracellular material. This
  matrix is secreted by the cells. It consists of
  protein fibers embedded in an amorphous mixture
  of protein-polysaccharide ("proteoglycan")
  molecules.
• This includes Cartilage, bone, ligaments,
  tendons, adipose tissue

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• Nerve Nerve tissue is composed of nerve cells
  called neurons and glial cells.
• Neurons are specialized for the conduction of
  nerve impulses. A typical neuron consists of a
  cell body which contains the nucleus a number of
  short fibers dendrites extending from the
  cell body a single long fiber, the axon.

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Question 71

• Ectoderm Tissue that covers the body coverings.
• Forms the central nervous system, the lens of the
  eye, cranial and sensory, the ganglia and nerves,
  pigment cells, head connective tissues, the
  epidermis, hair, and mammary glands

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• Mesodermlayer forms in the embryos of
  triploblastic animals. During gastrulation, some
  of the cells migrating inward contribute to the
  mesoderm, an additional layer between the
  endoderm and the ectoderm.
• The formation of a mesoderm led to the
  development of a coelom. Organs formed inside a
  coelom can freely move, grow, and develop
  independently of the body wall while fluid
  cushions and protects them from shocks
• Forms the skeletal muscle, the skeleton, the
  dermis of skin, connective tissue, the urogenital
  system, the heart, blood (lymph cells), and the
  spleen

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• Endoderm is one of the germ layers formed during
  animal embryogenesis. Cells migrating inward
  along the archenteron form the inner layer of the
  gastrula
• Forms into the stomach, the colon, the liver, the
  pancreas, the urinary bladder, the lining of the
  urethra, the epithelial parts of trachea, the
  lungs, the pharynx, the thyroid, the parathyroid,
  and the intestines.

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Question 72

• Function of the circulatory system includes
• Left side of heart ? aorta ? via arteries to
  organs, muscles ? into venous system of the body
  (vena cava) ? right side of the heart ? lungs
  (pick up oxygen) ? left side of heart

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Question 73

• Three components of the circulatory system
  includes
• Arteries Oxygenated blood to the body
• Veins Deoxygenated blood bringing blood back to
  the heart
• Capillaries Exchanging gases between arteries
  and veins

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Question 74

• Blood buffer system regulate blood pH through the
  liquid portion of the blood called plasma.
• The kidneys filter the blood that regulates the
  pH of the blood.

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Question 75

• Systemic circulation Systemic circulation
  supplies nourishment to all of the tissue located
  throughout your body, with the exception of the
  heart and lungs because they have their own
  systems. Systemic circulation is a major part of
  the overall circulatory system.
• Pulmonary circulation Pulmonary circulation is
  the movement of blood from the heart, to the
  lungs, and back to the heart again. This is just
  one phase of the overall circulatory system.

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Question 76

• Two main types found in the immune system in
  animals
• Nonspecific immunity nonspecific prevention of
  the entrance of invaders into the body.
• Example Saliva contains an enzyme called
  lysozyme that can kill germs before they have a
  chance to take hole
• Skin covering the entire the body
• Specific immunity multilayered defense
  mechanism 1- first line of defensephagocytes,
  macrophage, neutrophils, complement 2- second
  line of defense B cells (plasma/memory), T cells
  (helper/cytoxic)

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Question 77

• Inflammatory response A fundamental type of
  response by the body to disease and injury, a
  response characterized by the classical signs of
  pain, heat (localized warmth), redness, and
  swelling.

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Question 78

• Cell-mediated immunity involves direct cellular
  response to invasion as opposed to antibody-based
  defense
• Managed by T- cells
• Humoral immunity systemdeals with infectious
  agents in the blood and body tissues
• Managed by B-cells with the help from T-cells

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Question 79

• Primary Immune response antigen invader ? B cell
  meets antigen? B cell differentiates into plasma
  cells and memory cells ? plasma cells produce
  antiboides ?antibodies eliminate antigen (humoral
  immunity)
• Secondary immune response antigen invader ?
  memory cells recognize antigen and pump out
  antibodies much quicker than primary response ?
  antibodies eliminate antigen

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Question 80

• Kidney The kidneys are bean-shaped organs, each
  about the size of a fist. They are located near
  the middle of the back, just below the rib cage,
  one on each side of the spine. The kidneys are
  sophisticated reprocessing machines. Every day, a
  persons kidneys process about 200 quarts of
  blood to sift out about 2 quarts of waste
  products and extra water. The wastes and extra
  water become urine, which flows to the bladder
  through tubes called ureters. The bladder stores
  urine until releasing it through urination

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Question 81

• Ectotherm Cold Blooded organismsuch as a snake
• Endotherm Warm-blooded organisms such as a human

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Question 82

• Central Nervous System makes up the brain and
  spinal column
• Controls skeletal muscles and voluntary movement
• Peripheral Nervous System Can be broken down
  into sensory and motor division
• The sensory division carries information to the
  CNS while the motor division carries information
  away from the CNS
• Autonomic Nervous System controls involuntary
  activities of the body smooth muscles, cardiac
  muscles, and glands.
• Can be divided down further to sympathetic and
  parasympathetic

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Question 83

• Sympathetic Nervous System It is the part of
  the Fright and FlightResponse. It uses energy -
  your blood pressure increases, your heart beats
  faster, and digestion slows down
• Parasympathetic Nervous System Read and Digest
  response. It works to save you energy by lowering
  blood pressure, heart beat slows, and digestion
  starts.

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Question 84

• Glial CellsA supportive cell in the central
  nervous system -- the brain and spinal cord.
  Glial cells do not conduct electrical impulses
  (as opposed to neurons, which do). The glial
  cells surround neurons and provide support for
  them and insulation between them. Glial cells are
  capable of extensive signaling in response to a
  diversity of stimuli.

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Question 85

• There are three parts that make up a neuron
• Cell Body Main body of the neuron
• Dendrite is one of many short, branched
  processes of a neuron that help bring the nerve
  impulses toward the cell body
• Axons are longer extensions that leave from a
  neuron and carry the impulse away from the cell
  body toward target cells.

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Question 86

• Mechanoreceptors enable us to detect touch
  monitor the position of our muscles, bones, and
  joints and detect sounds and the motion of the
  body
• Chemoreceptors a sensory nerve cell or sense
  organ, as of smell or taste, that responds to
  chemical stimuli
• Photoreceptors A nerve ending, cell, or group of
  cells specialized to sense or receive light.

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Question 87

• A skeletal muscle fiber shows striations.
• These straitions result from a specific
  arrangements of proteins inside the myofibre. The
  two principal type of proteins are myosin
  (forming the thick filament) and actin (forming
  thin filaments)
• The sarcomere is the distance between two Z lines
  which are formed by the joining points of the
  thin filaments. The lighter I band represents
  areas where the thin filaments are present while
  the H band is where both actin and myosin run
  parallel to each other.

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Question 88

• Sliding filament model contraction occurs in the
  sarcomere of striated muscle, by the sliding of
  the thick filaments relative to the thin
  filaments.

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Question 89

• Four essential nutrients
• Carbs- ingested in the form of polysaccharides,
  used mainly as fuel
• Lipids- are used as fuel, as components of cell
  membranes, and to synthesize steroid hormones and
  other lipid substances, ingested as triglycerides
• Proteins- serve as enzymes and are essential
  structural components of cells
• Vitamins- are organic compounds required in small
  amounts for many biochemical processes, some
  serve as components of coenzymes
• Minerals- are inorganic nutrients ingested as
  salts dissolved in food and water

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Question 90
Blood traveling through the heart 1- Blood
arrives through vena cava into right atrium 2-
Right atrium through tricupsid valve 3- Right
ventricles (least oxygenated blood) 4- To lungs
through pulmonary artery by route of pulmonary
valve 5- Blood returns to heart through pulmonary
vein 6- Enters left atrium (most oxygenated
blood) 7- Enters the left ventricle through the
mitral valve 8- Goes to the aorta by route of
aortic valve 9- To the rest of the body
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Question 91
Blue section of the heart is the deoxygenated
blood Red section is the oxygenated blood
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Question 92

• Plasma The liquid portion of the blood, which
  contains minerals, hormones, antibodies, and
  nutritional materials.
• Plasma purpose is allows blood to flow so
  efficiently

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Question 93

• Erythrocytes Red blood cells that contains the
  protein hemoglobin
• Leukocytes White blood cells that function for
  the defense of the organisms
• Platelets or thrombocytes these blood cells
  are responsible for stopping blood around the
  wound.

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Question 94

• Each heartbeat has two basic parts diastole or
  relaxation, and atrial and ventricular systole
  (SIS-toe-lee), or contraction.
• During diastole, the atria and ventricles of your
  heart relax and begin to fill with blood. At the
  end of diastole, your heart's atria contract
  (atrial systole) and pump blood into the
  ventricles. The atria then begin to relax. Next,
  your heart's ventricles contract (ventricular
  systole) and pump blood out of your heart.

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Question 95

• Humoral immunity involves the T lymphocytes cells
  and B lymphocytes
• The plasma cells are the factories that produce
  antibodies that function in the elimination of
  any cell containing on its surface the antigen
  that it has been summoned to killed. These
  antibodies, when released, bind to the antigens,
  immobilzing them and marking them for the
  marophages to engulf and eliminate

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Question 96

• Cell-mediated immunity involves direct cellular
  response to invasion as opposed to anitbody-based
  defense.
• Cytotoxic T Cells into play

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Question 97

• Aldosterone regulates sodium concentration of
  the body.
• It helps in maintaining the blood pressure and
  liquids/electrolytes in the blood.
• The kidney hormone kenin normally stimulates the
  adrenal glands released aldosterone

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Question 98

• Renin-angiotensin system is the hormone that
  regulates blood pressure

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Question 99

• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) stimulates
  reabsorption of water by the collecting ducts of
  the nephron.
• ADH is a hormone stored in the posterior
  pituitary gland in the brain. It regulates water
  in the body. ADH acts on the kidneys to increase
  total body water. This increases blood volume and
  blood pressure.
• These cells sense the concentration of particles
  in the blood. When the concentration is high, the
  pituitary releases more ADH. This causes more
  water to be retained to dilute the body fluids.
  When the concentration is low, the pituitary
  releases less ADH.

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Question 100

• Steroid hormones are lipid-soluble molecules
  that pass through the cell membrane and combine
  with cytoplasmic proteins.
• Function Reproduction, glucose metabolism, and
  the response to stress and salt balance

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Question 101

• Peptide (Protein) Hormone water-soluble hormones
  comprised of a few amino acids that introduce a
  series of chemical reactions to change the cell's
  metabolism. Examples include hormones of the
  pituitary gland and parathyroid glands.
• The proteins are too large to move into cells and
  thus bind to receptors on the surface of cells

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Question 102

• Secondary Messengers In response to the binding
  of a protein hormone, a change in the receptor
  that leads to the activation of molecules inside
  the cell, which serve as intermedairies,
  activating other proteins and enzymes that carry
  out the mission
• Two examples
• cAMP
• G proteins
• Calicum ions

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Question 103

• Insulin produced in the pancreas
• Three functions of insulin include
• To release insulin in the pancreas to be stored
  in the glycogen
• Used for energy
• Sometimes between meals, your glucose level drops
  below the desired glucose level this will cause
  your glycogen into action causing the pancreas
  into action.

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Section 104

• Glucagon Stimulates conversion of glycogen into
  glucose.
• Stored in the liver
• Raises the blood sugar
• Stores blood sugar (in the liver) and will
  stimulate the pancreas to release insulin from
  the pancreas when blood sugar (glucose) drops.

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Question 105

• Introduction development begins as soon as the
  egg is fertilized to produce a diploid zygote
  (2n).
• Cleavage cytoplasm is distributed unevenly to
  the daughter cells but genetic information is
  distributed unevenly.
• These cleavage division take a while in humans.
  The first three division takes 3 days to
  complete. After the fourth division, the one cell
  has become 16 cells and is now called a morula.

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• As it undergoes it next round of cell division,
  fluid fills the center of the morula to create
  the hollow-looking structure known as the
  blastula.
• Gastrulation (also called morphogenesis)- cells
  separate into three primary layers called germ
  layers, which eventually give rise to the
  different tissues of an adult
• Holoblastic Total or entire cleavage
• Meroblastic Partial Cleavage

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• Archenteron Hollow space
• This results in the formation of three dermal
  layers
• The ectoderm (forms outer covering nervous
  tissue)
• The endoderm (gut outpocketings like liver
  lungs)
• The mesoderm (muscles other organs, forms later
  in the blastocoel of the gastrula)

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Question 106

• Cytoplasmic Determinants (distribution)
  different amounts of cytoplasmic signal different
  structures
• Gene Expression (homeotic genes) regulate or
  direct the body plan of organisms
• Morphogenesis (same as gastrulation) cells
  separate into three primary layers called germ
  layers
• Pattern Formation Formation of different germ
  layers

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• Positional Information During gastrulation will
  allow the cell to form different cells (endoderm,
  mesoderm, and ectoderm)
• Morphogens Substance that governs tissue
  development.

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Question 107

• Autonomic Nervous System(ANS) Controls
  involuntary activities of body.
• Regulates Muscles
• in the skin (around hair follicles smooth
  muscle)
• around blood vessels (smooth muscle)
• in the eye (the iris smooth muscle)
• in the stomach, intestines and bladder (smooth
  muscle)
• of the heart (cardiac muscle)

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• Somatic Nervous System Is responsible for
  voluntary body movements
• Skeletal Muscles
• Touch
• Hearing
• Sight

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Question 108

• Parts of the brain
• Medulla Control center for involuntary
  activities such as breathing
• Pons Arousal, controlling autonomic function,
  relaying sensory information between cerebrum and
  cerebellum, sleep
• Cerebellum is in charge of coordination and
  balance
• Reticular formation located inside the brain
  stem responsible for Arousal, Attention,
  Cardiac Reflexes, Motor Functions, Regulates
  Awareness, Relays Nerve Signals to the Cerebral
  Cortex, Sleep

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• Thalamus Motor Control, Receives Auditory,
  Somatosensory and Visual Sensory Signals, Relays
  Sensory Signals to the Cerebral Cortex Controls
  Sleep and Awake States
• Hypothalamus is the thermostat and hunger-meter
  of the body, regulating temperature, hunger and
  thirst
• Cerebral cortex many "higher-order" functions
  likelanguage and information processing. Gray
  matter

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