Classical Conditioning

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Classical Conditioning

• How do you get a dog to salivate when he hears a
  bell?

Pavlov's Dog
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Classical Conditioning

• Classical Conditioning Associating a natural
  stimulus and a neutral stimulus

natural stimulus produces a predictable
response neutral stimulus does not produces any
particular response
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Classical Conditioning

• Application of Classical Conditioning
  Psychologists use

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) (natural
stimulus) that produces an unconditioned response
(UCR) at the same time as a . . .
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Classical Conditioning
Conditioned stimulus (CS) (once-neutral
stimulus) producing the same response, called a
conditioned response (CR) after several
repetitions
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More realistic example

• Getting dental work done (unconditioned stimulus)
  
• hurts (unconditioned response)
• Eventually the sound of the dentists drill
  (conditioned stimulus)
• causes anxiety, fear, or pain (conditioned
  response)

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Generalization/Discrimination

• You may either generalize respond the same to
  all drill sounds (similar stimuli), or
• Discriminate If you learn to respond only to
  dental drill sounds (distinct stimuli)

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Extinction

• If the conditioned stimulus
• is NOT followed by the same unconditioned
  stimulus
• It will result in extinction and the conditioned
  response will disappear

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Operant Conditioning

• Learning from consequences of behavior
• The behavior is either reinforced (increases) or
  punished (decreases)

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Reinforcement

• Reinforcement stimulus or event that increases
  the likelihood a behavior will be repeated
• Example to get a dog to shake hands, you must
  give it a treat
• (reinforcement) every time
• it raises its paw

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Reinforcement

• Primary Reinforcer stimulus that satisfies a
  biological need (food or water)
• Secondary Reinforcer stimulus like money that
  gives a reward by being linked with a primary
  reinforcer (food)

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Schedules of Reinforcement

1. Fixed Ratio reinforcement after a fixed number
   of responses (paid after every 10 pizzas made)
2. Variable Ratio reinforcement after varying
   number of responses (playing a slot machine)

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Schedules of Reinforcement

• 3. Fixed Interval reinforcement of first
  response after a fixed amount of time (picking up
  your paycheck after 2 weeks)
• 4. Variable Interval reinforcement of first
  response after varying amounts of time (calling a
  friend but getting a busy signal)

Variable reinforcers are more resistant to
extinction than fixed reinforcers
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Shaping

• A process of achieving a desired behavior by
  rewarding similar behaviors until the desired
  behavior is reached
• Example To get a dog to lie down and roll over,
  you must reward each act until the desired trick
  is learned

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Negative Reinforcement

• A behavior increases by removing or preventing a
  painful stimulus
• Example you take an aspirin to relieve a
  headache the headache is a negative reinforcer
  to taking aspirin (aspirin taking increases)

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Punishment

• An unpleasant consequence decreases the frequency
  of the behavior that produced it
• Example Yelling NO!! every time a child gets
  close to the fire will stop the unsafe behavior

• Can produce unwanted side effects
• Rage
• Aggression
• Fear

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Social Learning

• Altering behavior by observing and imitating the
  behavior of others

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Social Learning

• Cognitive Learning altering behavior by mental
  processes
• Latent Learning learning or remembering details
  without intending to (seeing the same things on a
  regular driving route)
• Learned helplessness repeated attempts to
  control a situation fail, you feel helpless
  (cannot change a situation, cannot escape
  punishment often leads to depression)

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Social Learning

• Modeling learning by imitating others

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Social Learning

• Behavior Modification systematic application of
  learning principles to change peoples actions
  and feelings
• Examples
• Use classical conditioning to overcome fears
• Operant conditioning using token economies by
  reinforcing desired behaviors by giving tokens
  that can be exchanged for rewards later
• Social learning through personal systems of
  rewards and punishments to create self-control

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Group Activity

• In groups of 3, read the two behaviors you are
  given
• Decide what general kind of conditioning they
  describe (Classical or Operant) and if operant,
• Determine what specific kind of operant
  conditioning (positive reinforcement, negative
  reinforcement, punishment)
• Explain the example and your answers to the class
• Take notes on all examples given (they will be on
  the test)

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Group Activity
Example Type of Conditioning Notes, comments
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
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Memory

• Memory storage and retrieval of what has been
  learned or experienced

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Processes of Memory

• 1. Encoding transforming information so the
  nervous system can process it

Can encode by Seeing the letters Hearing them
spoken or Making a connection face
E
C
A
F
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Processes of Memory

1. Storage maintaining information over time
   (depends on how much effort was put into encoding
   the information)
2. Retrieval information is brought to mind from
   storage (depends on how efficiently it was
   encoded and stored)

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3 Stages of Memory

• 1. Sensory memory brief memory storage
  immediately following a sensory input

• 1 V F
• X L 5 3
• B 7 W 5

Lasts only a fraction of a second
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3 Stages of Memory

• 2. Short-term memory memory of about 7 items,
  lasts about 20 seconds

Lasts longer if repeated
Chunking grouping items to make them easier to
remember
Primacy-Recency Effect
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3 Stages of Memory

• 3. Long-term memory storage of information over
  extended periods of time

I before e except after c
Semantic memory knowledge of language rules,
words, meanings
Episodic memory memories of your life
Declarative memory information retrieved as
needed
a2b2c2
Procedural memory learned skills, does not need
conscious recollection
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Retrieving Information

• Recognition the retrieval of an idea, object,
  or situation you have experienced before
• Recognizing songs or instruments
• Recognizing answers on a multiple choice test

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Retrieving Information

• Recall active reconstruction of previously
  learned material. Influenced by
• Reconstructive process altering or distorting
  our memories (selective memory)
• Confabulation filling in memory gaps with
  information/experiences that were not there
• Schemas conceptual frameworks we use to make
  sense of the world
• Eidetic memory a photographic memory

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Relearning/Forgetting

• Relearning Can relearn previously learned
  information with less work (reciting a nursery
  rhyme or poem from your childhood)
• Forgetting
• Decay fading away of memory over time
• Older memories remain (can be recovered through
  hypnosis, meditation, brain stimulation)
• Interference blockage of memory by prior or
  later memories
• Amnesia loss of memory from a blow to the head
  or infant amnesia (lack of early memories)

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Improving Memory

• Elaborate Rehearsal linking of new information
  to material that is already known
• Associate new information with past events,
  relationships, feelings
• Learn new information in small bits instead of
  all at once (dont cram)

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Improving Memory

• Mnemonic Devices Using associations to memorize
  and retrieve information
• Acrostics (Queen of Hearts eats raspberry cream
  tarts)
• Use mental pictures to learn making up words,
  stories, etc. to remember

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Spacing Effect

• Distributing rehearsal (spacing effect) is better
  than practicing all at once. Robert Frosts poem
  could be memorized with fair ease if spread over
  time.

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Chunking

• Organizing items into a familiar, manageable
  unit. Try to remember the numbers below
• 1-7-7-6-1-4-9-2-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1
• If you are well versed with American history,
  chunk the numbers together and see if you can
  recall them better.
• 1776 1492 1812 1941.

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Rehearsal

• Effortful learning usually requires rehearsal or
  conscious repetition.
• Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using nonsense
  syllables TUV YOF GEK XOZ
• The more times the nonsense syllables were
  practiced on Day 1,
• the fewer repetitions were required to remember
  them on Day 2.
• 
  !

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Using only your notes, on a clean sheet of paper,
list the following

• The 3 Processes of Memory
• The 3 Stages of Memory
• The 4 kinds of long term memory
• The 4 things that influence our recall
• The definition of mnemonic devices

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Psychological Testing

• Test Reliability ability of a test to give the
  same results under similar circumstances
• Do you score about the same when retaken?
• Do different people give you the same score?
• Do you do about the same on each section of the
  test?

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Psychological Testing

• Test Validity ability of a test to measure what
  it is intended to measure
• Does the test accurately predict performance?

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Psychological Testing

• Standardization test must be given the same way
  each time
• The test must establish an average score (norm)
  of a large, well defined, group of people

Norm standard of comparison for test results
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Psychological Testing

• Questions to ask when getting a score
• Would you score the same if you took the test
  again?
• Does the score reflect your knowledge of the
  subject?
• Does your score compare fairly with other
  students who took the test?

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Intelligence Testing

• Intelligence
• The ability to acquire new ideas and new behavior
  and to adapt to new situations
• Or
• The ability to do well on intelligence tests and
  in school

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Theories of Intelligence

• In groups of 4-5 read about the theory of
  intelligence on your card in Section 2 of Chapter
  13 (p. 349-352)
• Summarize the main features of the theory
• Present them to the class who will complete a
  chart in their notes on the theories

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Theories of Intelligence
Theory Main Features Issus, Criticisms
Spearman
Thurstone
Gardner
Sternberg
Emotional Intelligence
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Intelligence Tests

• Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (1973)
• Children tested one at a time
• Define words, draw pictures, explain events in
  daily life
• Intelligence Quotient (IQ) Mental
  Age/Chronological Age X 100

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Intelligence Tests

• Wechsler Tests (1981)
• Tests for adults and children
• One overall score, plus
• Percentile scores in several areas (vocabulary,
  math, picture arrangement)
• More detailed picture of individuals strengths
  and weaknesses

Percentile percent of people taking the test
who scored lower than your score
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Intelligence Tests

• You should complete these questions in 60 seconds
  or less!
• 1.Two ducks and two dogs have a total of fourteen
  legs. True   False
• 2.A pie can be cut into more than seven pieces by
  making four diameter cuts. True   False
• 3.Two of the following numbers add up to
  thirteen.1, 6, 3, 5, 11 True   False

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Personality Testing

• Personality Tests assess personality
  characteristics and identify problems
• Objective tests
• limited or forced-choice format
• Used to study personality characteristics
• Projective tests
• unstructured
• Test-taker can respond freely with their own
  interpretation of various stimuli

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Personality Testing

• Objective Test Examples
• MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
  Inventory)
• 567 true-false questions
• Used to assess major patterns of personality and
  extreme emotional disorders
• Usually given with other tests or interviews

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MMPI

• 1. I like mechanics magazines
• 2. I have a good appetite
• 3. I wake up fresh rested most mornings
• 4. I think I would like the work of a librarian
• 5. I am easily awakened by noise
• 6. I like to read newspaper articles on crime
• 7. My hands and feet are usually warm enough

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Personality Testing

• Objective Test Examples
• CPI (California Psychological Inventory)
• true-false questions
• Measures traits such as responsibility,
  self-control, and tolerance
• Used to predict adjustment to stress, leadership,
  and job success
• Usually follow-up test with counseling or
  discussion with a psychologist

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Personality Testing

• Objective Test Examples
• Myers-Briggs Test
• Characterizes personality on four different
  scales
• Shows test takers how they relate to others and
  how others relate to them

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Personality Testing

• Projective Test Examples
• Rorschach Inkblot Test
• Inkblot designs are shown to the test-taker who
  says what he/she sees
• Reveals aspects of the persons personality
• Results often depend on the psychologists
  expectations

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Rorschach Test
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Rorschach Test
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Personality Testing

• Projective Test Examples
• TAT (Thematic Apperception Test)
• Pictures of vague but suggestive situations
• Subjects are asked to tell a story about the
  picture
• Used to assess personality problems of the
  test-taker

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TAT