Political Theories

1
Political Theories

• 5th lecture.
• The postmodern theories and the 21st century

2
Division of the semester

• 1st lecture Introduction and Classical
  Antiquity.
• 2nd lecture Political ideas of the Middle Ages.
  Church and state in medieval Europe. The
  investiture controversy.
• 3rd lecture Political ideas of early Modern Age.
  Separation of Church and State. The Separation of
  powers, and the importance of institutions.
  Machiavelli, Hobbes, Montesquieu.
• 4th lecture Political ideas of 19th century.
  Birth of modern streams of political thinking.
  Liberalism, conservativism and left-wing
  movements, (Marx and Marxism).
• 5th lecture Main trends in political movements
  (thinkers and ideas and institutions in the 20th
  century.)

3
Assessment process
Obligatory literature Civilizations and
world-religions and the History of political
ideas ppt-presentations on the web-page
www.marosan.com Recommended literature Marosán
György. (2006) Hogyan készül a történelem?
Money-Plan kft The course implies an exam. There
are two components of the mark an essay and a
written exam. If someone participates at least 3
lectures from the 5, and writes an acceptable
essay at home, then he or she could receive a
mark after his or her essay, (that is no written
exam needed then). When someone does not
participate enough lectures, and/or his or her
essay is not acceptable or is not good enough,
then he or she must make a written exam too. The
topic/theme of the essay must be in a connection
with the subject matter of the course, and it
should be an analysis of a definite, designed
topic, or movie. The essay must be of 2600 words
long, the dead-line is 17. december, 2012.
4
Topics and treatments of essays

• Everybody should write two essays one from
  Civilizations and World-religions and another
  from History of Political Ideas.
• The topic of the first essay one should watch a
  film, (which is set in the case of each student
  individually), then write an essay concerning the
  topic or theme of the movie, (perhaps a
  recommendation of 20 lines at the end of the
  essay).
• The topic of the second essay the decisive
  events of 21st century on the basis of articles
  and news downloaded from the internet. The
  student must choose 5 news, events or articles,
  and write an essay on its ground.
• Both essays should be unbiassed, objective,
  multisided.

5
Movie-titles.Possible themes for essay

• A katedrális (német-kanadai)
• Hullám (N)
• Ajami (Izraeli film)
• Ég velünk (USA)
• A vágy forradalma (francia)
• Ütközések (USA)
• Vittorio de Sica Csoda Milánóban (Olasz)
• Aki szelet vet (USA)
• Isten nagy, én kicsi vagyok (francia)
• Fellini Róma (Olasz)
• Megfoghatatlan (Il Divó) Andreotti film (O)
• Pasolini Médeia (Olasz)
• Rosellini Róma nyílt város (Olasz)
• A háborúnak vége (F) Semprun könyvbol film
• Berlin fölött az ég, (német)
• Kapcsolat (USA, Jodie Fosterrel, 1997)
• Tarkovszkij A tükör
• A kelet, az kelet. (A)
• Anna és a király (USA)

1. Enyedi Ildikó Simon mágus (magyar)
2. Ámen (francia-német-német film)
3. Bergman Úrvacsora (svéd)
4. Andrzej Wajda Szenthét (Lengyel)
5. A paradicsom meghódítása (Angol-amerikai-francia-s
   panyol)
6. Bergman Suttogások, sikolyok (svéd)
7. A Magdolna novérek (ír)
8. Luther (N)
9. Goya kísértetei, (spanyol).
10. Mennyei királyság, (Amerikai-angol, stb.)
11. Bergman A hetedik pecsét
12. Bresson Egy falusi plébános naplója (francia)
13. Bergman Tükör által homályosan (svéd)
14. Tarkovszkij Andrej Rubljov (szovjet-orosz)
15. Szent Lajos király hídja (spanyol-angol-francia)
16. Enyedi Ildikó A buvös vadász (magyar)
17. Hét év Tibetben (Amerikai)
18. Bresson Jeanne DArc pere
19. Vera Drake

6
The points of view of the analysis of the film

• What is the movie about?
• What is its relationship to the particular,
  chosen topic (to Religions or History of
  Political Ideas)
• What is the message of the movie?
• What is its peculiar importance in relationship
  to the history of 20th and 21st century?
• Does it have a message in regard of nowadays
  Hungary?
• Which opposite opinions are expressed in the
  movie?
• Which opposite opinions are present according to
  the topic in question in the contemporary
  Hungarian and/or global society?
• You could select the behaviour, story or path of
  life of one or more characters, and you could
  present and analyse them in your essay.
• With what other movies and literary works could
  you compare the actual, chosen movie?
• What is the relationship of this film to the
  reality does it alter the latter drastically or
  rather mirrors it in a quite acceptable, adequate
  way?

7
Topic of the other essay

• There were three options
• You should choose and download from the internet
  5 events, news, information in the last two
  years, which you consider to be decisive in
  regard of the history of 21st century.
• I will give you one case, about which you could
  write an essay.
• There are some TED case, which also provide
  option to write essay.

8
The points of view of the analysis concerning
the 21st century

• You should choose and download from the internet
  5 events, news, information in the last two
  years, which you consider to be decisive in
  regard of the history of 21st century.
• You should show and argue for why do you think
  these events to be decisive (rather than others).
• You should unfold their connections and internal
  relationship, and form your opinion what kind of
  future they foreshadow together.
• You should determine the possible message of this
  foreshadowed picture in regard of Europe, and in
  particular in regard of East-Europe.
• You should determine the possible message of this
  foreshadowed picture in regard of present
  Hungarian society.
• The essay must be approximately 8 pages, out of
  which one page should be about the analysis of
  these five tendencies.
• Deadline 17. December, 2012. Room, E II 22.

9
An example

• At least 45 people, including women and children,
  have been killed in sectarian violence involving
  two ethnic groups over land row in Nigeria's
  northern state of Benue, police and witnesses
  said today. Those killed belong to Tiv ethnic
  group while the attackers were the Fulani people
  who are mostly cattle herdsmen, witnesses
  said.The Tiv, who are mostly farmers, also had
  some of their houses burnt down by the invaders.
  Ejike Alaribe, the police spokesman, said the
  number of people killed in Sunday's violence is
  16 but a witness who spoke to PTI on condition of
  anonymity insisted the number could not be less
  than 45, adding that the country's police is
  known for reducing casualty figures.The cause
  of the violence is related to land row between
  the two ethnic groups. The Fulanis, who are
  mostly Muslims, seek land for their cattle to
  graze while the Tivs want to preserve it for
  farming.Ethnic conflict over land are
  widespread in northern Nigeria. Most frequently,
  these occure in the country's north-central state
  of Plateau where Fulani herdsmen engage in
  clashes with the Biroms and other ethnic groups.

10
Suggested TED presentations (www.TED.org)

• J. Haidt Religion, evolution, and the extasy of
  self-transcence
• J. Haidt The moral roots of liberalism
• Hans Rosling A vallások és a demográfia
• Hans Rosling The best statistics
• Frans de Waal Moral behavior in animals
• Dan Ariely irracionalitásaink..
• D. Ariely Our buggy moral
• Devdutt Pattenaik Kelet kontra nyugat
  elkápráztató mítoszok
• Joseph Pine What consumer wants
• Roy Sutherland an add man life
• Gopnik What do babies think
• Jamie Drummond Lett crowsource ..
• Marc Googman A vision of crime int he future
• Jean Baptiste Michel Matehmatics of history
• Sherry Turtle Connected but alona
• Berry Schwartz Paradox of choice
• Laurie Santos Monkey economy
• Geoffrey West A városok és cégek meglepo
  matematikája

1. Paddy Ashdown The global power shift.
2. Clay Shiky Institution vs. collaboration
3. Clay Shirky How the internet transform
   government
4. Rachel Botsman The currency of the new economy
5. Jammy Drummond Lets crowsource
6. Don Tapscott Four principles for open world
7. Howard Rheingold The new power of collaboration
8. Yochai Benkler New open-source economics
9. Sam Harris Science can answer moral questions
10. Schlomo Benartzi Saving for tomorrow, tomorow
11. R. Wilkinson How economic inequality harms
    society
12. Niall Ferguson A jólét 6 kegyetlenül jó "app"-je
13. Mark Forsyth Whats a snowgoster
14. M. Jakubowski Nyílt forráskódú tervrajzok a
    civilizációhoz
15. Gladwell Choice, happiness, spagetti sauce
16. Lean-Baptist Michel The mathematics of histoty
17. J. Diamond Why societies collapse

11
Main features of a political theory

• A political theory treats the principles,
  guide-lines, norms and values according to which
  (in the thinkers opinion) the society has to
  organize its institutions, functions, structures,
  hierarchy and its general way of working.
• The aim of a political theory is to find the best
  way of running a society and a state.
• The political thinker in question has to argue
  for his or her ideas, so for his or her opinion
  according to which she/he finds some values to be
  the best for a society.
• She or he has to fix the most basic values
  according to which the society or the state has
  to organize itself, and its particular way of
  functioning. So she or he has to say what she/he
  thinks to be the most important in regard of a
  society the preserving the traditional values of
  a nation (conservativism), guaranteeing the
  invulnerability of sphere of personal, individual
  freedom (liberalism), social justice and the
  defense of the rights of the needy (left-wing
  movements, Social democracy).

12
How to govern a state? Two solutions

• For the Greek political thinkers there were
  generally three possible ways of governance
  kingship, aristocracy and politeia (democracy,
  republic).
• Kingship or kingdom, which meant monarchy, was
  the dominance of one person or family, that
  privatized the community, and its most
  important resources, using the latter entirely at
  his and their will and pleasure.
• The republic (democracy, politeia) was the
  community of several, principally equal citizens,
  who looked for the proper method of how to decide
  those question together, which were decided in a
  kingdom by only one person or just a few.
• Of course there are transitional forms between
  republic and kingdom, which were described by the
  theoreticians of Athenian democracy, (e.g.
  oligarchy, aristocracy the dominance of a few
  people).

13
Recurrent problems of republics

• How can we achieve that everybody could have a
  role in the republic? Everybody is eligible.
• How can we achieve that everbody could have an
  equal chance to have an access to the public
  state? The elections were done by means of
  drawing of lots (sortition).
• How could we avoid the tyranny? By ostracism.
• How could we achieve that the people participate
  in political life in real? We should make the
  participation in politics an obligation, and we
  should pay for managing the proper social,
  political, public offices.

14
Assigned sovereignity as an achievement of the
history of European civilization

• The sovereign and all-powerful monarch assigns
  certain rights in certain fields that an
  organization could determine and controll its
  functions and working in an autonomous, sovereign
  and free way. Thus emerge in the history of
  Europe
• Free cities,
• Free guilds,
• Free religious communities,
• Free universities,
• Free societies (e.g. Academies)
• Free enterprises

15
Evolution of separation of powers, 1.

• John of Salisbury, AD1120-1180.
• He wittnesses the assassination of his mentor
  Thomas Becket by the men of the king, Henrik II,
  in 1174.
• His main work is Policraticus (1159), in which
  he determined the just governance limited and
  controlled by laws, and acceptance of separation
  of powers as the highest task of the monarch.
• On the one hand he wrote about the difference
  between monarch and tyrrant, according to which
  the monarch subjects himself to the reign of just
  law, while the tyrrant subjects everything to his
  own subjective will and pleasure.
• On the other hand he argues for that the Church
  is such an autonomous, sovereign organization,
  which falls beyond the sphere of competence of
  the king thus the people, dominions, lands,
  properties and rights to nominate its own people
  to ecclesiastic positions are inviolable,
  invulnerable by the king.

16
The activitiy index of the first European
Parlaments from the 11. to the 17. century.
There are interesting differences development
of parlamentarism between the North and South
Europa
17
Machiavelli

• , "Il Principe," contains a number of maxims
  concerning politics, but rather than the more
  traditional subject of a hereditary prince, it
  concentrates on the possibility of a "new
  prince." To retain power, the hereditary prince
  must carefully maintain the socio-political
  institutions to which the people are accustomed.
• Scholars often note that Machiavelli glorifies
  instrumentality in state-building - an approach
  embodied by the saying that "the ends justify the
  means..

18
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) Evolution of
separation of powers, 2.

• The pre-historical period before state
  organization was not as it was generally
  thought by many a time of harmony, a golden
  age of young and innocent mankind, but just the
  opposite the world of permanent and brutal
  conflicts. It was the time of bellum omnium
  contra omnes, the war of all against all.
• But the man possesses not only instinct, but also
  reason, he is capable of thinking of the future,
  of anticipation, and it makes him able to end
  this period of natural state, following his own
  interests.
• He founds the social contract, according to which
  each man abandon his or her absolute right to
  self-affirmation, to do whatever he wants, and
  assign this right to an absolute sovereign if
  and only every other man does the same.

19
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

• In such condition, there is no place for
  industry because the fruit thereof is uncertain
  and consequently no culture of the earth no
  navigation, nor use of the commodities that may
  be imported by sea no commodious building no
  instruments of moving, and removing, such things
  as require much force no knowledge of the face
  of the earth no account of time no arts no
  letters no society and which is worst of all,
  continual fear, and danger of violent death and
  the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish,
  and short.
• Hobbes was a champion of absolutism for the
  sovereign but he also developed some of the
  fundamentals of European liberal thought the
  right of the individual the natural equality of
  all men the artificial character of the
  political order (which led to the later
  distinction between civil society and the state)
  the view that all legitimate political power must
  be "representative" and based on the consent of
  the people

20
John Locke (1632-1704). Birth of modern state
Evolution of separation of powers, 3.

• The man adds his work to the goods of nature, and
  he creates value. Thus he gains the right to have
  property. The work is the basis for all kind of
  property.
• This idyllic picture of natural state was
  collapsed by the emegence of money. The money
  made possible the accumulation of wealth, and it
  resulted great inequalities.
• The inequal distribution of properties brought
  sharp conflicts, which must be controlled. To
  avoid these inconveniences, which disorder men's
  propperties in the state of nature, men unite
  into societies, that they may have the united
  strength of the whole society to secure and
  defend their properties, and may have standing
  rules to bound it, by which every one may know
  what is his, Locke, Second Treatise on Civil
  Government, 1690, London, 1821 306.
• Locke rejects Hobbes solution, according to
  which the people should abandon their rights in
  favour of the monarch. The people would be crazy
  to offer all their rights for a monarch with
  unlimited, absolute power, and trust their fate
  to this uncontrolled, unrestricted overlord.

21
Montesquieu (1689-1755).The share of powers,
The Spirit of the Laws

• He tooks the principle of separation of powers
  from Locke, but he elaborates this idea in great
  details in his work The Spirit of the Laws,
  (De lespirit des lois, 1748).
• In every government there are three sorts of
  power the legislative the executive in respect
  to things dependent on the law of nations and
  the executive in regard to matters that depend on
  the civil law.
• By virtue of the first, the prince or magistrate
  enacts temporary or perpetual laws, and amends or
  abrogates those that have been already enacted.
  By the second, he makes peace or war, sends or
  receives embassies, establishes the public
  security, and provides against invasions. By the
  third, he punishes criminals, or determines the
  disputes that arise between individuals. The
  latter we shall call the judiciary power, and the
  other simply the executive power of the state.,
  The Spirit of the Laws, 11th book, 6, Of the
  Constitution of England.

22
Montesquieu. Continuation.The evolution of
separation of powers, 4.

• Montesquieu
• The political liberty of the subject is a
  tranquillity of mind, arising from the opinion
  each person has of his safety. In order to have
  this liberty, it is requisite the government be
  so constituted as one man need not be afraid of
  another.
• When the legislative and executive powers are
  united in the same person, or in the same body of
  magistrates, there can be no liberty because
  apprehensions may anse, lest the same monarch or
  senate should enact tyrannical laws, to execute
  them in a tyrannical manner. , The Spirit of
  Laws.
• In the background of this conception one could
  find a peculiar insight the effective and
  succesfull governance depends primarily not on
  the eminence of politicians, but on the
  appropriate manner and character of institutions.

23
Montesquieu (1689-1755)

• Montesquieu saw two types of governmental power
  existing the sovereign and the administrative.
  The administrative powers were the executive, the
  legislative, and the judicial. These should be
  separate from and dependent upon each other so
  that the influence of any one power would not be
  able to exceed that of the other two, either
  singly or in combination.
• This was a radical idea because it completely
  eliminated the three Estates structure of the
  French Monarchy the clergy, the aristocracy, and
  the people at large represented by the
  Estates-General, thereby erasing the last vestige
  of a feudalistic structure.

24
J. Locke

• Locke's political theory was founded on social
  contract theory. Unlike Thomas Hobbes, Locke
  believed that human nature is characterised by
  reason and tolerance. Like Hobbes, Locke believed
  that human nature allowed men to be selfish. This
  is apparent with the introduction of currency. In
  a natural state all people were equal and
  independent, and everyone had a natural right to
  defend his Life, health, Liberty, or
  Possessions".21 Most scholars trace the phrase,
  "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness," in
  the American Declaration of Independence to
  Locke's theory of rights,22 though other
  origins have been suggested.23

25
J. Locke (2)

• Like Hobbes, Locke assumed that the sole right to
  defend in the state of nature was not enough, so
  people established a civil society to resolve
  conflicts in a civil way with help from
  government in a state of society. However, Locke
  never refers to Hobbes by name and may instead
  have been responding to other writers of the
  day.24 Locke also advocated governmental
  separation of powers and believed that revolution
  is not only a right but an obligation in some
  circumstances. These ideas would come to have
  profound influence on the Declaration of
  Independence and the Constitution of the United
  States.

26
Rousseau

• The first man who, having fenced in a piece of
  land, said "This is mine," and found people naïve
  enough to believe him, that man was the true
  founder of civil society. From how many crimes,
  wars, and murders, from how many horrors and
  misfortunes might not any one have saved mankind,
  by pulling up the stakes, or filling up the
  ditch, and crying to his fellows Beware of
  listening to this impostor you are undone if you
  once forget that the fruits of the earth belong
  to us all, and the earth itself to nobody.

27
The lesson of French Revolution

• The theoreticians will be more suspicious and
  careful with the conception of unlimited,
  absolute power, no matter whether it is practiced
  by a king, a group of nobles, aristocrats or
  eminent political people, or the entire people.
• They will be more careful with separating the
  representation and the final, ultimate executive
  power.
• The claim increases amongst them towards the
  securing of private, individual rights, of
  defending the rights of the minority against the
  power of the actual majority of the society in
  question.

28
Separation of powers after the Second World War

• The number of voters (freemen) increases by leaps
  and bounds (the age limit is brought down, there
  is no property qualification in voting anymore,
  women got a right to vote also).
• The new voters are interested in voting and
  politics in general less they have no time,
  they are disinterested and no experience either.
  It is a question of how their own interest could
  be realized in political praxis.
• A subtly balanced system was formed and
  consolidated
• Parliament (with the Opposition), Government,
• Shared and separated powers,
• Constitutional Court, President (King),
• National Bank, National Audit Office,
• Media,
• Civil organizations (civil advocacy groups),
  local governments/ authorities,
• Central Statistical Office, National Academy.

29
The problem of separation of powers at the end of
the 20th century

• How could such an organization be governed, that
  has in case if it is a corporation more than
  one hundred thousand shareholders, and in case
  if it is a state several million citizens who
  have the right to vote?
• How could it be guaranteed that the interests of
  such a huge amount of beneficiaries -
  shareholders or voters would be continually
  represented in real and as far as it is
  possible realized by those who were trusted to
  manage and take care the main duties and affairs
  of the community in question?
• These questions are justified by the same fact in
  both cases the appropriate agents
• do not see through the situation in its entire
  complexity,
• do not take the trouble to receive detailed
  information in a circumspective and prudent way,
• do not participate the shareholders/owners
  assembly or the elections,
• do not take care at all of their property/state,
  do not spend any time and energy concerning it
  the maximum is that they whine or curse when the
  bankruptsy or the crisis comes in.
• The political and business sciences though
  different way but found the same solution to
  these questions and the answer is the
  institutional way of sharing or separating of
  powers.

30
Factors of good governance

• 1) Participation
• 2) Rule of law
• 3) Transparency
• 4) Responsiveness
• 5) Consensus orientation
• 6) Equity
• 7) Effectiveness and efficiency
• 8) Accountability
• 9) Strategic vision

31
Dimensions of the rule of law

• Limited government powers
• Absence of corruption
• Order and security
• Fundamental rights
• Open government
• Effective regulatory enforcement
• Access to civil justice
• Effective criminal justice
• Informal justice

32
The waves of the history
?
2000
1973
Population, Production, and Consumption
1929
1875
1815
1650
1300
The question is there a change in the trends
after 2000?
1000
1500
2000
33
History of the last 500 years in a few words

• Upsurge (the long 16th century from 1492 to
  1618)
• Change of speed (1650-1750)
• Take-off (1750-1850)
• Acceleration (1850-1970)
• Run-away and overshot (1950-?)
• The central question of 21th century
  stabilization or collapse.

34
The triple revolution of the end of 18th
century

• Industrial revolution (revolution of technique
  and technology)
• Political revolution (the birth of modern civil
  society)
• Social revolution (birth of new social
  identities nation and class)
• The political ideas of 19th and 20th century was
  mainly determined and characterized by the ways
  in which the political thinkers and ideologues
  reacted to these events.

35
The liberal answer and evaluation

1. The triple slogan of French Revolution liberty,
   equality, brotherhood could be regarded in
   principle as the victory of liberal thought. The
   French Revolution gave birth to the unitary
   national state, which earlier was made up of
   separate orders.
2. The industrial revolution opened the way to a
   dynamic development, and the liberal thinking
   welcomed that. The liberal thinkers were the
   pioneers of technical and technological
   advancement and development.
3. They treated the social questions and problems as
   necessary implications of social changes and
   transformations. They proposed a strict and
   iron-handed defence of private property by the
   state. They considered the miseries and paurerdom
   as temporary problems of society, but they
   advocated the social reforms.

36
Conservative respond and evaluation

1. The revolution is considered as the disruption of
   social harmony. For a conservative thinker the
   revolution is nothing else but anarchy and
   general social confusion. It is a conspiracy
   against traditional state and traditional
   institutions organized by some free-thinkers
   (especially freemasonry) and libertines, carried
   out through the manipulation and deception of
   masses and the plebs.
2. The industrial revolution is considered as the
   disruption of earlier peaceful and natural
   mode of production, which lead to new
   contradictions and antinomies in the society.
3. They glanced at the masses of social difficulties
   and antinomies, at the emergence of a new and
   apparently uncontrollable class with fear, and
   principally with a critical attitude. They reject
   the mechanical and alianated civilization. They
   regard the disappearance of traditional society
   as disintegration and disorganization.

37
The socialist respond and evaluation

1. The social revolution is the motor of
   development, the Jacobin terror as a necessity
   and respond to the counter-revolutionary revolts
   is the possiblity of a radical political way to
   realize the social equality.
2. The industrial revolution is the possibility of
   enrichment and advancement, but every burden is
   placed onto the proletariat.
3. The social change results the emergence of a new
   class, which is deprived of any defence, and
   which is exposed to extreme urban pauperdom and
   neediness, to cruel conditions of work, and to
   necessary unemployment.

38
What is liberalism?

• Its central subjects are individual freedom,
  intangibility and inviolability of private
  property, and in favour of both is the limitation
  of the state, (Hobbes, then Locke).
• Main features the affirmation of reason and
  advancament, religious tolerance, the common good
  or public benefit is a result of conflict and
  competition of private interests, free
  competition, pursuit of welfare through the
  above-mentioned issues.
• Liberalism emphasizes the equality of rights. Its
  basic claims are the principal, essential civil
  rights the rights of association and assembly,
  the freedom of opinion and publication.
• With all these also some spiritual or
  intellectual rights freedom of conscience and
  religion, and also some economic rights the
  freedom of enterprise and (economic) contract.

39
What is conservativism?

• Originally it was a general tendency of
  traditionalism it was the conception of
  advocation of traditional morals, values,
  religion, following of inherited rules and norms,
  and the maintenance of the status quo.
• The main feature of conservative feeling of life
  and style of thinking concentrating on concrete
  phenomena, rejection of theoretical speculations.
  
• The conservative thinker rejects the abstract,
  egalitarian conception of freedom (socialism) as
  well as the negative conception of freedom given
  by the liberal thinkers.
• The progressive thinker considers the actual
  present as the beginning of the future, while the
  conservative regards it as the last station of
  the past, (Karl Mannheim, Conservatism. A
  Contribution to the Sociology of Knowledge ).

40
What is socialism?

• The expression socialism appeared in the 30s
  years of the 19th century. Its advocators
  propagated the war against the defencelessness of
  the worker in the name of the mans dignity. They
  supported the advancement and the civil
  revolution.
• They agree with the liberals concerning the
  central role of reason and rationality, and the
  importance of industrial revolution, but they
  rejected the circumstances which lead to the
  miserable conditions of the members of working
  class.
• In accordance with the conservatives they
  emphasized the importance of common values, but
  they rejected the idea of eternal and necessary
  inequality.
• Their aim was to realize the promises of the
  French Revolution to everybody the principles of
  liberty, equality and brotherhood.