AP Human Geography Test Review

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AP Human Geography Test Review

• Political Geography

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States

• State any area with a defined territory that
  exercises its sovereign control over areas both
  inside and outside its borders
• Earth is divided into about 200 countries
  (states)
• In past 100 years, number of states has increased
  by over 100
• Territorial Organization states organized into
  a geographically based hierarchy of local
  government agencies
• Serve the functions of (1) efficiently delegating
  administrative function in what may otherwise be
  large and unwieldy area, (2) can allocate
  resources through local agencies that may be more
  in touch with the needs of the people in their
  jurisdiction, and (3) usually give their local
  territory some degree of autonomy (ability to
  enact laws, police their lands, and tax local
  citizens)
• Commonwealth territory that has established a
  mutual agreement with another state for the
  benefit of both parties
• Colony territory that is legally tied to a
  sovereign state rather than being completely
  independent
• Control of the colony varies
• Colonialism effort by one country to establish
  settlements and to impose its political,
  economic, and cultural principles on a territory

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States - Colonies

• European states established colonies for 3
  reasons
• European missionaries established colonies to
  promote Christianity
• Colonies provided resources that helped the
  economy of European states
• European states considered the number of colonies
  to be an indicator of relative power
• Summarized as God, gold, and glory
• Imperialism control of territory already
  occupied and organized by an indigenous society
• United Kingdom had largest empire
• Sun never set on the British Empire
• Colonial practices of European states varied
• France attempted to assimilate colonies into
  French culture not so successful
• Britain created different government structures
  and policies depending on the territory
• Decentralized approach helped to protect diverse
  cultures, local customs, and educational systems
• Most colonies made peaceful transition to
  independence
• Nearly all in Pacific Ocean or Caribbean Sea
• Puerto Rico is most populous remaining colony
• Commonwealth of the United States
• 4 million residents
• Frances French Polynesia, Mayotte, and New
  Caledonia the Netherlands Netherlands Antilles
  and the United States Guam and U.S. Virgin
  Islands are colonies with population between
  100,000 and 300,000
• Least populated colony Pitcairn Island (United
  Kingdom) 47 people

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States - Colonies

• Colonialism practice of establishing political
  dominance over a people for economic, political,
  and territorial gain
• Organic Theory created by political geographer
  Friedrich Ratzel
• State was like a living entity that constantly
  needed to grow to thrive states constantly need
  new territory to meet the demands of their
  ever-growing population
• Religious Colonialism conducted by numerous
  religions
• Christianity and Islam
• Economic Colonialism- quest for wealth
• European colonists sought wealth (gold, furs,
  etc.)
• Colonies expected to provide resources for the
  home country needed to sustain itself
• Self-Determinism power of a people to establish
  their own government the way that they see it
• Former colonies would rather see chaotic
  conditions ruled by member so their own country
  than peaceful conditions ruled by colonial power

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Types of Empires

• The Land Empire involves conquest by force
• Armies attack, pillage, and plunder their way
  through another land, taking resources by force
• Ex. Spanish employed empire tactics in Mexico
• The Sea Empire used sea power to control area
• Settlements established along coast, and
  excursions into the interior brought loot back to
  these settlement, where ship would be waiting to
  take resources back to home country
• The Settlement Empire intended to stay long
  time
• Once settlement established, colonists sent
  resources back to home country
• Colony expected to become independent and
  eventually pay back home country
• Primarily used by the British and French

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States - Government

• Types of Government
• Unitary State places most power in the hands of
  central government officials
• Unitary government systems works best (in theory)
  in nation-states with few internal cultural
  differences
• In reality, multinational states use unitary
  systems so the values of on nationality can be
  imposed on others
• Some African countries (Rwanda, Ghana, and Kenya)
  have done so on ethnic group could dominate
  another
• Eastern European countries used unitary systems
  go promote the diffusion of Communist values
• Federal State allocates strong power to units
  of local government within the country
• Governments bestow autonomous powers upon their
  local territories
• Local governments posses more authority to adopt
  their own laws
• Ability to empower different nationalities
  especially if they live in different regions
• Boundaries can be drawn by regional ethnicities
• More suitable for larger states national
  capital may too remote to effectively govern
• Size of federal states varies
• Larger states include Russia, Canada, India, and
  U.S.
• Belgium is federal state two cultural groups
• How to delegate authority in a federalist country
  has crucial implications for everything from tax
  collection , to the use of natural resources

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Electoral Geography

• Reapportionment (redistricting) Boundaries
  separating legislative districts redrawn
  periodically to ensure each district has
  approximately same population
• Boundaries of U.S. House of Representatives
  redrawn every 10 years following the census
• Most European countries use independent
  commissions to redraw district boundaries
• Most U.S. states use the state legislature
  giving the political party in power to redraw
  districts
• Gerrymandering process of redrawing legislative
  boundaries for the purpose of benefiting the
  party in power
• Three types of gerrymandering
• Wasted Vote spreads opposition supporters
  across many districts, but in the minority
• Excess Vote concentrates opposition
  supporters into a few districts
• Stacked Vote links distant areas of
  like-minded voters through oddly shaped
  boundaries

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Gerrymandering Florida Georgia
Fig. 8-11 State legislature boundaries were
drawn to maximize the number of legislators for
Republicans in Florida and Democrats in Georgia.
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• Gerrymandering drawing voting districts to
  benefit one group over another.

Majority-Minority districts drawn so that the
majority of the population in the district is
from the minority.
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Nation and Nation-State

• Nation Term encompassing all the citizens of a
  state refer to tightly knit group of people
  possessing bonds of language, ethnicity,
  religion, and other shared cultural
  attributes/identity
• Many people becoming more loyal to their nation,
  rather than their state
• Ex. Al-Qaeda left behind loyalty to the states
  in which they are citizens, pledging their
  allegiance to Al-Qaeda forming a nation
• Usually nations are located within the borders of
  a state
• Examples Koreans, Hmong, Kurds, Basques,
  Flemish, Walloons, and Zulus
• Many want their own state, but conflict can arise
  with two nations competing a geographic area
• Nation-State recognized political unit wherein
  territorial state coincides with the area settled
  by a certain group of people corresponds with
  particular ethnicity that has been transformed
  into a nationality
• Examples Japan and Denmark

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Sovereignty

• Sovereignty ability of a state to regulate
  their own internal and external affairs
• Some continue to struggle with sovereignty
• Kurds one of largest nationalities in the world
  without a state
• Located in Turkey, northern Iran, and northern
  Iraq with some in Armenia and Azerbaijan
• Most Kurds have own language and practice Islam
• Basques independent group in Pyrenees Mountains
• Majority live in Spain with some in Andorra and
  southwestern France
• Basques have their own language (Euskara) and
  desire to have their own nation-state called
  Euskal Herria
• Flemish live in the north of Belgium
• Official language is Flemish (Common Dutch) and
  religion (Roman Catholic)
• Distinct from Walloons in language (French) and
  religion (Protestant)
• Desire own nation-state called Flanders
• Zulu live in eastern South Africa
• Apartheid white minority ruled South Africa,
  Zulus forced to occupy low status suffering
  discrimination in all aspects of life
• Zulus have their own language (isiZulu) desire to
  have own homeland (KwaNdeebele)
• Palestinians live in the West Bank, Gaza Strip,
  and Golan Heights of Israel
• Palestinians fled to other countries after Israel
  created in 1948
• Most practice Islam, speak Arabic desire to
  create state called Palestine

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Antarctica National Claims
Fig. 8-2 Antarctica is the only large land mass
that is not part of a state, but several
countries claim portions of it.
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Political Organization of Space

• Governments usually create organizations to
  assist with their interactions with other
  countries
• Embassies offices represent U.S. interests to
  the leadership of other countries
• Ambassadors lead officials representing the
  U.S. in other countries
• Consulates secondary offices that usually deal
  with economic issues as well as the granting of
  visas to enter their home countries
• Other political geography terms
• Satellite states under the control of the
  Soviet Union created a cultural wall (Iron
  Curtain)
• Iron Curtain divided democratic, capitalist
  Western Europe from totalitarian, communist
  Eastern Europe
• Shatterbelt regions regions caught up in the
  conflict between two superpowers
• Boundaries often changed Vietnam and Korea
• Buffer state country that lies between two
  other states, but remains neutral in the conflict
  between them
• Mongolia between China and Soviet Union
• Supranational Organization separate entity
  composed of three or more states that forge an
  association and form an administrative structure
  for mutual benefit in pursuit of shared goals

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Geopolitical Theories

• Heartland Theory Halford MacKinder wrote The
  Geographical Pivot of History
• Suggests that whoever owns Eastern Europe and
  Western Asia has the political power and capital
  to rule the world
• Eastern Europe contained one of the richest
  agricultural regions in the world sustain a
  large population
• Also contained abundant raw materials (coal)
  needed to develop strong military and industrial
  base
• Adolph Hitler believed in this theory which is
  why he attempted to invade/conquer Eastern Europe
• Rimland Theory Nicholas Spykman wrote in The
  Geography of Peace was known as the godfather
  of containment
• Believed in forming alliances is necessary to
  keep Heartland in check (no individual country
  could contain by itself
• Rimland theory would control the sea
• Domino Theory adopted by U.S. in 1960s 1970s
• When one country experiences rebellion or
  political disunity, other countries around it
  will also experience turmoil as a result, leading
  to a domino effect of political instability
• Established in response to the communist
  incursions that had been occurring around the
  world
• Irredentism the attempt by one country to
  provoke coups or separatist movements in another
  country

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Rimland Theory
Heartland Theory - Heartland is also known as
the pivot area
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Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces

• Centripetal Forces forces that tend to unite a
  state
• Includes strong national institutions, sense of
  common history, and a reliance on strong central
  government
• Examples include flags, anthem, other acts of
  patriotism
• Centripetal forces can be positive and negative
• Positive when supporting or pulling a nation
  together
• Negative when nationalistic ideas place
  individual nations above all others (usually with
  militaristic regimes, power hungry leaders, and
  racist ideologies)
• Centrifugal Forces forces that pull a state
  apart
• Include ideas of regionalism, ethnic strife, and
  territorial disputes
• Include language, religion, ethnicity, and
  ideology

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Political forces and Ideologies

• Balkanization political process by which a
  state may break up into smaller countries
• Occurs when enclaves develop with their own
  ethnic identities, or when central governments
  increasingly devolve administrative authority to
  their constituent territories
• Former Soviet Union, former Yugoslavia
• Devolution Giving up of power by the central or
  federal government to the different regions of
  the country
• The process whereby regions within a state demand
  and gain political strength and growing autonomy
  at the expense of the central government
• Devolutionary pressures result in increased
  autonomy for a region. If strong enough, these
  devolutionary pressures may result in complete
  balkanization
• Supranationalism method of extending state
  borders through the assistance and/or
  establishment of other organizations to further
  economic and/or political cooperation
• Ex. European Union (EU)
• United into one organized unit for the purpose of
  increasing individual strength through collective
  efforts
• Democratization transition to a more democratic
  political government
• Existence of competitive election that are free,
  regular, and fair
• Three waves of democratization

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Ethnocultural Devolutionary Movements

• Eastern Europe -
• Devolutionary forces since the fall of communism

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Immanuel Wallersteins World-Systems Theory

• The world economy has one market and a global
  division of labor.
• Although the world has multiple states, almost
  everything takes place within the context of the
  world economy.
• The world economy has a three-tier structure.
• Construction of the World Economy
• Capitalism people, corporations, and states
  produce goods and services and exchange them in
  the world market, with the goal of achieving
  profit.
• Commodification the process of placing a price
  on a good and then buying, selling, and trading
  the good.
• Colonialism brought the world into the world
  economy, setting up an interdependent global
  economy.

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Three Tier Structure
Core Processes that incorporate higher levels of
education, higher salaries, and more technology
Generate more wealth in the world economy
Periphery Processes that incorporate lower
levels of education, lower salaries, and less
technology Generate less wealth in the world
economy
Semi-periphery Places where core and periphery
processes are both occurring. Places that are
exploited by the core but then exploit the
periphery. Serves as a buffer between core and
periphery
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