Three Stages of Memory

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Three Stages of Memory

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Stage Model of Memory
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Three Stages of Memory

• Three memory stages that differ in
• Capacity How much info can be stored
• Duration How long the info can be stored
• Function what is done with the stored info
  capacity and duration.
• Information is transferred from one stage to
  another

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Sensory Memory

• Functionholds information long enough to be
  processed for basic physical characteristics
• Capacitylarge
• can hold many items at once
• Durationvery brief retention of images
• .3 sec for visual info
• 2 sec for auditory info

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Sensory Memory

• Sensory memory forms automatically, without
  attention or interpretation
• Attention is needed to transfer information to
  working memory

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Neisser's Selective Attention Test Introduction

• At any particular moment, we focus our attention
  on just a few limited aspects of our experience.
• Ulric Neisser devised a test to demonstrate
  selective attention. A viewer sees images of
  three men in black shirts tossing a ball
  superimposed on images of three men in white
  shirts tossing a ball, and is instructed to press
  a key each time a black-shirted player passes the
  ball.

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To take this test (only a portion of the complete
film is shown here), make a tick mark on a piece
of paper each time a black-shirted player passes
the ball. Click below to view the film
Neisser's Selective Attention Test
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Neisser's Selective Attention Test Questions

• Did you notice a woman with an umbrella walk
  across the court?
• How is selective attention useful to us? What are
  some of its drawbacks?
• Selective attention applies not just to vision
  but to the other senses too. Give some examples.

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Sensory Memory

• Divided into two types
• iconic memoryvisual information
• echoic memory auditory information

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Types of Sensory Memory

• Visual sensory memorybrief memory of an image or
  icon. Also called iconic memory
• George Sperling studied iconic memory
• Auditory sensory memorybrief memory of a sound
  or echo. Also called echoic memory
• Auditory sensory memories may last a bit longer
  than visual sensory memories

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Sperlings Iconic Memory Experiment
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Sperlings Iconic Memory Experiment
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Sperlings Iconic Memory Experiment
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Sperlings Iconic Memory Experiment
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Sperlings Experiment

• Presented matrix of letters for 1/20 of a second
• Report as many letters as possible
• Subjects recall only half of the letters
• Was this because subjects didnt have enough
  time to view entire matrix? No
• How did Sperling know this?

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Sperlings Experiment

• Sperling showed people can see and recall ALL the
  letters momentarily
• Sounded low, medium or high tone immediately
  after matrix disappeared
• tone signaled 1 row to report
• recall was almost perfect

• Memory for image fades after 1-3 seconds or so,
  making report of entire display hard to do

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Short Term or Working Memory
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Working Memory Store

• Function - conscious processing of information
• where information is actively worked on
• Capacity - limited (holds 7 /- 2 items)
• Duration - brief storage (about 30 seconds)
• Code - often based on sound or speech even with
  visual inputs

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Working Memory Store

• What happens if you need to keep information in
  working memory longer than 30 seconds?
• To demonstrate, memorize the following phone
  number (presented one digit at a time)...

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3
6
1
9
7
5
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Working Memory Store
857-9163

• What is the number?

The number lasted in your working memory longer
than 30 seconds So, how were you able to remember
the number?
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Maintenance Rehearsal

• Mental or verbal repetition of information

Allows information to remain in working memory
longer than the usual 30 seconds
Maintenance rehearsal
Working or Short-term Memory
Sensory Memory
Attention
Sensory Input
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Maintenance Rehearsal

• What happens if you cant use maintenance
  rehearsal?
• Memory decays quickly
• To demonstrate, again memorize a phone number
  (presented one digit at a time)
• BUT, have to count backwards from 1,000 by sevens
  (i.e., 1014, 1007, 1000 etc.)

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4
9
0
5
8
2
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Working Memory Store
628-5094

• What is the number?

Without rehearsal, memory fades
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Petersons STM Task

• Test of memory for 3-letter nonsense syllables
• Participants count backwards for a few seconds,
  then recall
• Without rehearsal, memory fades

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Working Memory Model

• Baddeley (1992)
• 3 interacting components

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Working Memory Model

• Visuospatial sketch pad - holds visual and
  spatial info
• Phonological loop - holds verbal information
• Central executive - coordinates all activities of
  working memory brings new information into
  working memory from sensory and long-term memory

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Ways to Improve STM Chunking

• Grouping small bits of information into larger
  units of information
• expands working memory load
• Which is easier to remember?
• 4 8 3 7 9 2 5 1 6
• 483 792 516

Sloth Meets Chunk
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Long Term MemoryLTM
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Long-Term Memory

• Once information passes from sensory to working
  memory, it can be encoded into long-term memory

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Long-Term Memory

• Functionorganizes and stores information
• more passive form of storage than working memory
• Unlimited capacity
• Durationthought by some to be permanent

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Long-Term Memory

• Encodingprocess that controls movement from
  working (STM) memory to long-term memory storage
  (getting info in)
• Retrievalprocess that controls flow of
  information from long-term to working memory
  store (getting info out)

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Encoding Automatic and Effortful Processing
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Automatic vs. Effortful Processing

• Some information, such as where you ate dinner
  yesterday, you process automatically.
• Other information, such as this chapter's
  concepts, requires effort to encode and remember.
  

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Automatic vs. Effortful Encoding

• Automatic processing
• Unconscious encoding of information
• Examples
• What did you eat for lunch today?
• Was the last time you studied during the day or
  night?
• You know the meanings of these very words you are
  reading. Are you actively trying to process the
  definition of the words?

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Automatic vs. Effortful Encoding

• Effortful processing
• Requires attention and conscious effort
• Examples
• Memorizing your notes for your upcoming
  Introduction to Psychology exams
• Repeating a phone number in your head until you
  can write it down

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Types of Effortful Processing

• Maintenance Rehearsal go over something
  repeatedly till it is encoded in LTM
• Elaborative Rehearsal relate the info to info
  you already know.
• Self-reference effect applies info to yourself.
• Visual imagery vivid images you can remember.
• Levels of Processing framework info encoded at
  a deeper level will be more easily remember than
  info encoded at a shallow level. How can you do
  this? (See middle of page 246).

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Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart's levels of
processing framework

• Information that is processed at a deep level
  is more likely to be encoded into long-term
  memory than information processed at a shallow
  level.
• When studying for classes, actively question new
  information, think about its implications, and
  try to generate your own examples based on your
  experiences

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Cerebellum
Hippocampus
Types of LTM
Implicit No conscious recall
Explicit W/ conscious recall
General Knowledge (semantic memory)
Personal Events (episodic memory)
Skills and Procedures (procedural memory)
Conditioning (CC OC)
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Dimensions of LTM

• Explicit memorymemory with awareness
  information can be consciously recollected also
  called declarative memory
• Implicit memorymemory without awareness memory
  that affects behavior but cannot consciously be
  recalled also called nondeclarative memory

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Two Types of Explicit Memory

• Episodic informationinformation about events or
  episodes
• Semantic informationinformation about facts,
  general knowledge, school work

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Episodic Memory

• Memory tied to your own personal experiences
• Examples
• What month is your birthday?
• Do you like to eat caramel apples?
• Q Why are these explicit memories?
• A Because you can actively declare your answers
  to these questions

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Semantic Memory

• Memory not tied to personal events
• General facts and definitions about the world
• Examples
• How many tires on a car?
• What is a cloud?
• What color is a banana?

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Semantic Memory

• Q Why are these explicit memories?
• A Because you can actively declare your answers
• Important note Though you may have personal
  experience with these items, your ability to
  answer does NOT depend on tying the item to your
  past
• i.e., Do not have to recall the time last week
  when you ate a banana to say that bananas are
  yellow

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Clive Wearing--Living Without Memory Introduction

• Studies of malfunctions of memory have helped
  researchers understand how we form (encode),
  store, and retrieve memories. Memories are
  recorded successively as sensory memory (the
  immediate initial stage), short-term memory (or
  working memory), and long-term memory.
• In one extreme type of memory deficit, caused by
  accident or disease, a person is unable to form
  new memories and lives in an eternal present.
• Clive Wearing, a world-renowned choir director
  and musical arranger, suffered brain damage
  following viral encephalitis, which destroyed
  both temporal lobes, the entire hippocampus, and
  much of the left frontal lobe. He lost his
  ability to form new memories. He has no memory of
  anything beyond the last minute or two.

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Clive and Deborah Wearing have one of their
regular encounters, thirteen years after Clive
suffered brain damage. Deborah describes Clive's
repeated experience of waking up for the first
time, as recorded in a diary.
Clive Wearing--Living Without Memory
Click on box or title to play.
If youd like to view a more recent video of
Clive click HERE. (554)
(1235) Segment 10 from The Mind Psychology
Teaching Modules (2nd edition).
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Clive Wearing--Living Without Memory Questions

• Why does Wearing retains many memory-related
  abilities, such as speech, musical ability, and
  ability to recognize his wife.
• What is the role of the hippocampus (totally
  destroyed in Wearing) in memory formation?

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Implicit Memory

• Nondeclarative memory
• Influences your thoughts or behavior, but does
  not enter consciousness
• Three subtypes

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Subtypes of Implicit Memory
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Classical Conditioning

• Studied earlier
• Implicit because it is automatically retrieved

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Procedural Memory

• Memory that enables you to perform specific
  learned skills or habitual responses
• Examples
• Riding a bike
• How to speak grammatically
• Tying your shoe laces
• Why are these procedural memories implicit?
• Cant readily describe their contents
• try describing how to tie your shoes
• They are automatically retrieved when appropriate

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Priming

• Priming is influence of one memory on another
• priming is implicit because it does not depend on
  awareness and is automatic
• Here is a demonstration

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Priming Demonstration

• Unscramble the following words
• O R E S
• L T E P A
• K T A L S
• TSME
• L O B S O M S
• ELAF

• ROSE
• PETAL
• STALK
• STEM
• BLOSSOM

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Priming Demonstration

• ELAF LEAF
• Why not respond FLEA?
• Because flower parts were primed (flower power)

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Perceptual Priming

• Can you identify the fragmented stimulus to the
  right?

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Two Types of Priming
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Conceptual Priming

• The semantic meaning of priming stimulus
  influences your encoding or retrieval
• Thought to involve activation of concepts stored
  in semantic memory
• Example Flower power priming demonstration
• Does not depend on sense modality (works across
  the senses) pictures can conceptually prime
  sounds AS THE NEXT SLIDE SHOWS

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Priming across modalities

• Look at the picture . Then when the instructor
  says a word, write it down.

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(No Transcript)
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Perceptual Priming

• Prime enhances ability to identify a test
  stimulus based on its physical features
• Does not work across sense modalities

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Perceptual Priming

• Can you identify the fragmented stimulus to the
  right?

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Perceptual Priming

• What if you were shown the following slide
  earlier in the lecture?

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Perceptual Priming

• Can you identify the fragmented stimulus to the
  right?

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How are memories organized?

• Clustering - hierarchical organization
• Semantic Network Model - associations

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Clustering Hierarchical Organization

• Related items clustered together to form
  categories
• Related categories clustered to form higher-order
  categories
• Remember list items better if list presented in
  categories
• poorer recall if presented randomly
• Even if list items are random, people still
  organize info in some logical pattern

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Hierarchical Organization
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Semantic Network Model

• Mental links between concepts
• common properties provide basis for mental link
• Shorter path between two concepts stronger
  association in memory
• Activating one concept can spread and activate
  other associations.

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Semantic Network ModelSee example at Human Cloud
Brain
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How is Memory like a Computer?
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Summary

• Modal model of memory
• three memory stores (sensory, working and
  long-term memory)
• control processes (attention, maintenance
  rehearsal, encoding and retrieval) govern
  movement of information within and between stores