Developing an understanding of science

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Developing an understanding of science

• What science is and what it is not.
• What science can do and what it cannot do.
• How science contributes to culture.

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What is the Nature of the Processes which Relate
to Science ?

• Is Science a process which
• can solve all kinds of problems and questions ?
• What is your viewpoint??
• A possible viewpoint you may hold
• The scope of science is limited strictly
  to solving problems about the natural world.
  Science is not properly equipped to handle the
  supernatural realm (as such), nor the realm of
  values and ethics (or religious beliefs).

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Science is a process which

• can ignore rules ?
• A possible viewpoint - Science must follow
  certain rules otherwise, it's not science (just
  as football/ice hockey, is not football/ice
  hockey if the rules are not followed).
• seeks the truth or facts ?
• A possible viewpoint - The goal of science
  is to come as close as we can to understanding
  the cause-effect realities of the natural world.
  It's never "truth" or "facts". "Truth" and
  "facts" can mean different things to different
  people.
• WHAT !! THE GOAL OF SCIENCE IS NOT ABOUT FACTS
  !!
• WHAT DO WE TEACH IN SCIENCE
  LESSONS ???

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This is a nice spiral, right?

• Wrong... It's a set of independent circles

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Science is a process which

• 4. attempts to prove things ?
• A possible viewpoint - The process of science,
  when properly applied, actually attempts to
  disprove ideas (i.e. tentative explanations)... a
  process called "testing", or "challenging". If
  the idea survives testing, then it is stronger,
  and more likely an accurate explanation.
• 5. can produce any kind of explanation ?
• A possible viewpoint - Supernatural explanations
  cannot be used, since they can never be disproved
  (supernatural forces, by definition, do not
  predictably follow the laws of nature. Whatever
  results occur in any test can be attributed to
  those nebulous forces, effectively ending any
  further efforts to explain).

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Science is a process

• 6. which produces certainties, or absolute facts
  ?
• A possible viewpoint - Science is a process
  which can only produce "possible" to "highly
  probable" explanations for natural phenomena
  these are never certainties. With new
  information, tools, or approaches, earlier
  findings (theories, or even facts) can be
  replaced by new findings.
• 7. for which one solution is as good as another ?
  
• A possible explanation - In science, there is a
  rigorous analysis and fair-test comparison of
  alternative explanations, using discriminate
  criteria, e.g., confirmation by multiple
  independent lines of evidence, leading to one
  "best" solution.

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• 8. which can be relied on due to its total
  objectivity and internal self-correction ?
• A possible explanation - Science can be done
  poorly, just like any other human endeavour. We
  are all fallible, some of us make fewer mistakes
  than others, some observe better than others, but
  we are still subjective in the end.
• 9. which is always used properly ?
• A possible explanation - Unfortunately,
  science is all too frequently misused. Because it
  works so well, there are those who apply the name
  of science to their efforts to "prove" their
  favourite cause, even if the rules of science are
  not followed. Such causes are properly labelled
  "pseudosciences".

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• 10. which is free from values, opinions or bias ?
• A possible explanation - Scientists are
  people, and although they follow rules and try to
  be objective, both in their observations and
  interpretations, biases are still there.
  Unconscious racial or gender bias, social status,
  source of funding, political leanings can, and
  do, influence one's perceptions and
  interpretations.
• 11. in which scientific theories are "tentative
  ideas" or "hunches".
• A possible explanation - The word "theory" is
  often used this way in everyday conversation, but
  a theory in science refers to a highly probable,
  well-tested, comprehensive explanation, usually
  for a large collection of observations.

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Aspects of the Nature of Science

• Tentative
• Scientific knowledge is subject to change with
  new observations and with the reinterpretations
  of existing observations. All other aspects of
  NOS provide rationale for the tentativeness of
  scientific knowledge.
• Empirical Scientific knowledge is based on
  and/or derived from observations of the natural
  world.
• These are fine, but

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A rabbit or a duck?
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Illusions

• Do you see the face? Or an Eskimo?

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A waterfall, but are you sure ??
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Does A or B form the straight line extension of
line C ?
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Do you believe that the lines at the top of the
trapezia are the same length ?
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• Let us continue looking at aspects of science
• So far we have said that the Nature of Science is
  such that it is
• Tentative
• Empirical (based on, or derived from,
  observation)

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Socially and culturally embeddedScience is a
human endeavour and is influenced by the society
and culture in which it is practiced. The values
of the culture determine what and how science is
conducted, interpreted, accepted, and
utilised.Subjectivity The development of
questions, investigations, and interpretations of
data are filtered through the lens of current
accepted theories and laws. This is an
unavoidable subjectivity that allows science to
progress and remain consistent, yet also
contributes to change in science when previous
evidence is examined from the perspective of new
knowledge.

• Five Additional Aspects of Science

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CreativeScientific knowledge is created from
human imaginations and logical reasoning. This
creation is based on observations and inferences
of the natural world.Laws and
TheoriesTheories and laws are different kinds of
scientific knowledge. Laws describe
relationships, observed or perceived, of
phenomena in nature. Theories are inferred
explanations for natural phenomena and
mechanisms for relationships among natural
phenomena. Hypotheses in science may lead to
either theories or laws with the accumulation of
substantial supporting evidence and acceptance
in the scientific community. Theories and laws
do not progress into one and another. They are
distinctly and functionally different types of
knowledge.
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• Observation and InferenceScience is based on
  both observation and inference. Observations are
  gathered through human senses or extensions of
  those senses. Inferences are interpretations of
  those observations. Perspectives of current
  science and the scientist guide both observations
  and inferences. Multiple perspectives contribute
  to valid multiple interpretations of
  observations.
• WOULD YOU AGREE THAT THIS IS AN IMPORTANT
  MESSAGE FOR THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN SCHOOL.
• INFERENCE IS AN ESSENTIAL COMPONENT OF SCHOOL
  SCIENCE.

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Dispelling the Myths about Science

• Scientific Laws and other such ideas are
  absolute.
• Hypothesis is an educated guess.
• A General and Universal Scientific Method Exists.
• Science and its Methods can answer all Questions
  Evidence accumulated carefully will result in
  sure Knowledge.
• Science and Its Methods provide Absolute Proof.
• Science is Procedural more than Creative.
• Scientists are particularly objective.

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• Experiments are the Principal route to Scientific
  Knowledge.
• Hypotheses become Theories that in turn become
  Laws.
• Scientific conclusions are reviewed for accuracy.
• Acceptance of new Scientific Knowledge is
  straightforward.
• Science models represent reality.
• Science and technology are identical.
• Science is a solitary pursuit.
• The Nature of Science in Science Education
  Rationales and StrategiesWilliam F. McComas 1998
  Kluwer Academic Publishers

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• Try the following ACTIVITIES

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A 3- holed bottle experiment

• A simple enough experiment, but .
• What hypotheses did this involve ?
• What observations were relevant ?
• What explanations were offered ?

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The 3 holed bottle experiment

• This is sometimes called a discrepant event as
  the reality is not as expected.
• (if you think about it, the sun moving
  across the sky is a discrepant event).
• But what scientific question could initiate the
  experiment?
• If matter is made of particles, how can matter be
  stored in containers?

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Observe what does actually happen.
What explanation do you have for what happened?
You should be able to put forward at least one
explanation. Explanations from the group may not
all be the same.
Select one explanation which you like. Now based
on that possible explanation, predict what will
happen when the second hole is uncovered.
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Observe what actually did happen.
Did the result match your prediction ? If so, do
you feel your prediction is good? If NOT, it
seems your prediction is not good. Can you put
forward another Prediction?

Now we have one more hole. Let us again make a
prediction about the outcome if we uncover all 3
holes.
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• Let us look at some ACTIVITIES related to ideas
  of research question, hypothesis, observation and
  deduction

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Examining a cube

• Create a group of 2 persons
• Examine (but do not touch/move) the cube placed
  on the table.
• Individually, from your inquisitive observation,
  frame a question which you would wish to ask
  about the cube ?
• Each person records their questions.

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Exploring one question further what is written
on the bottom, i.e. hidden side ?

• In your group, discuss this question.
• Record your group predictions.
• If you feel it is useful, your group may give
  more than one justification.
• If you have more than one prediction, identify
  the dominant hypothesis.

Justify your predictions with appropriate
evidence. (ANOTHER IMPORTANT STEP FOR THE
TEACHING OF SCIENCE)
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Examining another cube

• In your groups, examine (but do not touch/move)
  the new cube placed on the table.
• Put forward your predicted answer as to what is
  on the hidden, bottom face of the cube.
• Record your prediction(s).

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Cube 2 - a further stage

• Carefully raise one corner of the cube so that,
  with the use of a mirror, you can see the number
  recorded in the top right corner, OR the bottom
  left corner (but not both !!)
• Modify your prediction as to what is written on
  the bottom of the cube, if appropriate.

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Teaching and Cube 2

• Does cube 2 give us any insight into the teaching
  of science ?
• Does it suggest that we do not necessarily need
  to observe everything and that we can make
  calculated guesses from other observations ?
• We can make inferences.
• If a gas is colourless and lighter than air, can
  we infer it is probably hydrogen ?
• Or if a gas is known to be hydrogen, then can we
  infer a balloon containing hydrogen will ..

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A QuizDid the previous slides make
sense???Which option would you choose for the
following questions about science and technology ?
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What to do?

• On a sheet of paper write your preferred response
  to each of the following 7 questions as per the
  instructions given.
• What is the purpose of this quiz ?
• Its purpose is to see how much there is general
  agreement among the participants.

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The Nature of Science and Technology

• Science is
• (a) a study of fields such as biology,
  chemistry and physics.
• (b) carrying out experiments to solve problems
  of interest.
• (c) a systematic investigative process and the
  resulting knowledge.
• (d) inventing and designing things.
• (e) finding and using knowledge to make this
  world a better place.
• (f) a body of knowledge that explains the
  world around us.
• (g) exploring the unknown and discovering new
  things about the world.
• (h) an organisation of people called
  scientists who have ideas and techniques for
  discovering new knowledge.
• (i) do not know.

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• 2. In your opinion, what does Science aim at ?
• (a) To make sure that what has been discovered
  about the world is really true.
• (b) To understand, explain and interpret the
  continuing change in nature and its
  characteristics.
• (c) To discover, collect and group facts about
  nature.
• (d) To find ways to make peoples lives better.
• (e) Do not know.

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• 3. Why do you think Scientists do Scientific
  Research ?
• (a) To make new discoveries.
• (b) To try out their explanations for why
  things happen.
• (c) To make something which will help people.
• (d) To collect data as much as possible, and to
  draw out scientific laws from data.
• (e) Do not know.

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• 4. Which of the following statements about
  Scientific Knowledge match your Understanding of
  Scientific Knowledge
• (a) Scientific knowledge is a well-organised
  collection of facts.
• (b) Todays scientific knowledge is based on
  scientific perspectives, ideas and
  interpretations from the past.
• (c) Todays scientists have produced todays
  scientific knowledge.
• (d) Scientific knowledge contains only
  statements that are 100 true.
• (e) Do not understand the term scientific
  knowledge.

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• A Scientific Theory is
• (a) An idea about what will happen.
• (b) A most appropriate interpretation and
  explanation which has been approved by
  scientists.
• (c) A fact which has been proved by many
  experiments.
• (d) Do not know.

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• 6. Technology is
• (a) The application of science to enhance life.
• (b) Manufactured artefacts such as appliances,
  tools and scientific instruments.
• (c) The hardware, techniques, processes, people
  associated with items such as tools, appliances
  and scientific instruments.
• (d) Inventing, designing, developing and
  testing things such as appliances, tools and
  scientific instruments.
• (e) Very similar to science.
• (f) The process of manufacturing and the
  underlying know-how.
• (g) Something else e.g. ?

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• 7. Circle all the statements with which you
  agree
• (a) Technological innovations and/or
  development of science bring about environmental
  problems such as pollution and acid rain.
• (b) Science and technology often makes our
  lives healthier, easier, and more comfortable.
• (c) The prosperity of the nation depends to a
  greater extent on science and technology.
• (d) Science and technology rarely do harm to
  our lives.
• (e) We cannot solve all the problems which we
  are facing only by the power of science and
  technology.
• (f) Because science, technology and society
  are independent mutually, they do not affect each
  other.
• (g) Science and technology affect society on
  the one hand, society affects science and
  technology on the other hand.

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