Culture and Intergroup Relations

1
Culture and Intergroup Relations

• James H. Liu
• Centre for Applied Cross Cultural Research
• School of Psychology
• Victoria University of Wellington

2
Overview

• Subjective Culture and Intergroup Conflict
• Civilizational Conflict and Culture
• Religious Fundamentalism as a Source for
  Prejudicial Ideology
• Suicide Terrorism and the Social organization of
  violence (Al-Queda)
• Nationalism and Racism as Sources for Prejudicial
  Ideology

3
Subjective Culture

• Cross cultural psychology has focused on
  subjective (or psychological) rather than
  objective (institutional, organizational,
  infrastructural) aspects of culture
• Most psychological definitions of culture focus
  on it as an enduring system of symbolic meaning
  shared by people.
• It is considered to overlap with, but not be the
  same as society, which focuses more on
  institutionalized aspects of culture within a
  bounded territory under a political authority

4
Subjective Culture and Integroup Relations

• In practice, cross cultural studies treat culture
  as nationality, but when comparing two nations
  they usually select two that are quite different.
• The dimensions of cultural variation (e.g.,
  IND-COL, PD) are too abstract to influence
  intergroup relations very much, although Triandis
  has suggested that collectivists may favour their
  in-group (however defined) more than
  individualists, and Yamagishi notes the low level
  of general trust in Japan (a collectivist
  society).
• One of the few things self construal does not
  affect much is intergroup relations and
  prejudice!

5
History and Identity

• Liu and colleagues work on representations of
  history and ethnic/national identity has found
  that the content of beliefs about historical
  symbols influences attitudes towards intergroup
  issues
• Following this line of work, it is the content of
  culture--specific symbols that influences
  intergroup relations (e.g., the Treaty and
  Maori-Pakeha in NZ) within a nation.
• Future research will examine representations of
  war across 25 cultures and their relationship
  with other cross cultural indicators like
  IND-COL, SWB, or propensity to engage in warfare.

6
Conflict between Civilizations

• Politcal scientist Huntington (1997) argues that
  the clash of civilizations is crucial to
  conflict and stability in post-Communism.
  Defining civilization as culture writ large,
  and claiming that both refer to the overall way
  of life of a people, he divides the world into
  Western, Orthodox, Islamic, Sinic, Hindic,
  African, Latin American, Buddhist, Japanese
  civilizations. He argues that future conflicts
  will be sparked by cultural factors rather than
  economics or ideology, noting that societies
  united by ideology have come apart (Soviet Union,
  Yugoslavia) whereas the Germanies, Koreas, and
  Chinas tend to reunite.

7
Multi-polar, multi-civilizational world

• Huntington argues that the traditional political
  science lenses of bi-polar ideology (Capitalism
  vs communism, rich north vs. poor south, Western
  v non-Western) obscures the complexity of
  international relations.
• The realistic model of state interests
  (realpolitik) obscures the fact that values,
  culture, and institutions pervasively influence
  how states define their interests.
• Cultures/civilizations may resist modernization
  or Westernization despite potential benefits. No
  universality because of language and religion.

8
Religious conflict between Islam and the West

• Huntington has been made to look like a prophet
  because of Sept 11 and consequent conflicts, but
  he admits that few scholars think there is such a
  thing as African or Latin American civilization.
• Religious conflict between Christianity and Islam
  seems to be a special case of civilizational
  conflict rather than a general rule. I can think
  of no Buddhist crusades or jihads, for example.

9
Historical Origins of Conflict

• Christianity and Islam have been engaged in
  warfare somewhere in the world throughout almost
  the entire history of the two religions
• Both claim universal salvation and divine
  origins but Jesus is acknowledged as a prophet
  by Mohammed, as are other Old Testament prophets
• Arab expansion into Byzantium (Eastern Orthodox)
  Persia from late 600s, leading to the Crusades
  and sack of Jerusalem in 1099.
• More barbaric early crimes committed by
  Christians e.g., slaughter of Jerusalem, the
  ethnic cleansing of Spain in the 16th c. of
  JewsMuslims

10
The Rise of Islam Historical Conflict continued

• Pope absolved Crusaders of sins to be commited in
  advance of their expeditions. Saladin crushed
  the Crusaders in 1187, and subsequent Crusades
  continued without much success into the 1300s
• Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople (and
  Greece) in 1453, and from the 14th c.-1912
  dominated the Balkans. The Battle of Kosovo in
  1389 was invoked by Slovodan Milosevic in 1999 as
  a reason for the ethnic cleansing of Bosnian
  Muslims from Kosovo and the former Yugoslavia.

11
The Decline and Fall of the Turkish
EmpireIndustrialization and Enlightenment in
West

• From the 19th century, the Ottoman Turkish empire
  was in decay, and Egypt and parts of the Middle
  East were colonized the West
• During WWI, the British and French drew up the
  secret Sykes-Pikot Agreement to partition the
  Middle East into a patchwork of small states they
  would jointly rule division of oil revenues was
  delivered under the 1928 Red Line Agreement.
• Present day states in the Middle East are a
  creation of British and French interests in oil
  power.

12
Historical Context of Suicide Terrorism

• The rise of Western civilization poses a threat
  to the identity and values of other major
  civilizations. Exacerbated by widespread
  feelings of injustice, and governance by
  unpopular authoritarian regimes backed by the
  West (e.g., Palestinians, Egyptians, Saudis, NOT
  Iran!).
• Seek an explanation for backward conditions that
  protects the self-esteem of the in-group (SOCIAL
  IDENTITY THEORY).
• Religious ideology blaming OTHERS, both Satanic
  America and own corrupt rulers, calling for a
  return to RELIGIOUS PURITY.

13
Religious Fundamentalism

• Religious fundamentalism has appeal throughout
  the Islamic world. It can be understood as a
  reaction to modernism, and is found in the
  Western world (particularly the US) as well.
  Fundamentalists stress the absolutism and
  inerrancy of religious truth revealed in sacred
  scripture and are opposed by mighty evil that can
  only be defeated by following an authoritative
  set programme that leads to heavenly rewards.

14
Correlates of Religious Fundamentalism

• Religious fundamentalism is consistently
  positively correlated with prejudice in Christian
  countries.
• Altemeyer finds acceptance of home religion is
  positively correlated to Right Wing
  Authoritarianism in all faiths in N.America.
  High RWAs compartmentalize and think uncritically
  when it comes to their religious beliefs.
  Altemeyer claims that Fundamentalism can be
  viewed as a religious manifestation of RWA.

15
The Wahabbi Sect of Islam

• Mecca is the Holy Centre of Islam, with all
  Muslims charged to make a pilgrimmage to Saudia
  Arabia at least once in their lives.
• The ruling sect of Islam in Saudi Arabia is the
  highly fundamentalist Wahhabi, who believe in a
  simple and unitary God whose commandments are to
  be literally interpreted from the Koran and the
  original practices of Mohammed

16
A Moderate Fundamentalist Interpretation of
Jihad fatwa-online.com

• Shaykh al-Islaam (Ibn Taymiyyah) said
• Because this was a Jihad in Allaah¹s cause,
  which caused a whole nation to truly believe, and
  he did not really lose anything, since although
  he died he would have to die anyway, sooner or
  later.
• To expose oneself to certain death in Holy War is
  okay.
• and whoever kills himself with an iron weapon,
  then the iron weapon will remain in his hand, and
  he will continuously stab himself in his belly
  with it in the Fire of Hell eternally, forever
  and ever. Reported by al-Bukhaaree, no. 5778 and
  Muslim, no. 109, in the Book of Eemaan.)
• But suicide earns damnation

17
Fatwa on Suicide Bombing

• Ruling Suicide bomber goes to hell
• Because this person has killed himself and has
  not benefited Islam. So if he kills himself along
  with ten, or a hundred, or two hundred other
  people, then Islam will not benefit by that,
  since the people will not accept Islam, contrary
  to the story of the boy. Rather it will probably
  just make the enemy more determined, and this
  action will provoke malice and bitterness in his
  heart to such an extent that he may seek to wreak
  havoc upon the Muslims. (60-70 of terror bombers
  in IraqSaudi)

18
The Ideology of Al-Queda

• Ayman Al-Zawahiri is Al-Quedas second in
  command, and principle theorist from his own
  words in Knights under the prophets banner
• "He Sayyid Qutub affirmed that the issue of
  unification in Islam is important and that the
  battle between Islam and its enemies is primarily
  an ideological one over the issue of unification.
  It is also a battle over to whom authority and
  power should belong-- to God's course and
  shari'ah, to man-made laws and material
  principles, or to those who claim to be
  intermediaries between the Creator and mankind.

19
Al-Zawahiri continued

• An analysis of the political situation in Egypt
  would reveal that Egypt is struggling between two
  powers An official power and a popular power
  that has its roots deeply established in the
  ground, which is the Islamic movement in general
  and the solid jihad nucleus in particular.
• The first power is supported by the United
  States, the west, Israel, and most of the Arab
  rulers. The second power depends on God alone
  then on its wide popularity and alliance with
  other jihad movements throughout the Islamic
  nation

20
Osama Bin-Laden

• This is a matter of religion and creed it is
  not what Bush and Blair maintain, that it is a
  war against terrorism, he declared in a
  videotaped speech broadcast over al Jazeera
  television on November 3, 2001. There is no way
  to forget the hostility between us and the
  infidels. It is ideological, so Muslims have to
  ally themselves with Muslims.

21
Religious Ideology conclusionIdentity and
History

• Bin Laden and Al-Zawahiri make frequent
  references to Arab culture heroes like Saladin, a
  uniter of Arab peoples against the Crusaders, and
  to the oppression suffered by the common people
  at the hands of nationalists like Nasser Sadat.
• Extremists and moderate Muslim fundamentalists
  are using the same set of historical events to
  mobilize different agendas one presuming victory
  against all odds, the other more pragmatic, one
  mobilizing the Muslim nation, the other specific
  nationalities.

22
Ideology alone does not lead to violence Social
organization

• Osama Bin Laden is a terrorist CEO who has
  applied business administration and modern
  management techniques learned both at university
  and in the familys construction business to the
  running of a transnational terrorist
  organization. There are 4 levels of operational
  style associated with Al-Queda 1) Professional
  Cadre, 2) Trained Amateurs , 3) Local Walk-ins,
  4) Like Minded Groups, each capable of operating
  independently.

23
Social organization of Palestinian Suicide Bombers

• In 2000 (second intifada) they were young males,
  but today, suicide bombers are middle-aged and
  young, married and unmarried, some of them have
  children and some are women. Perceptions of
  injustice fuel widespread support for terrorism.
• Invariably, a terrorist organization such as
  Hamas, the Palestine Islamic Jihad (PIJ), or the
  al Aqsa Martyrs Brigade has recruited the bomber,
  conducted reconnaissance, prepared the explosive
  device, and identified a target. Family receives
  25,000US payment for deceased bomber.

24
Logistics of Palestinian Suicide Bombing

• Quartermasters obtain the explosives and the
  other materials (nuts, bolts, nails, and the
  like) that are combined to make a bomb for about
  150.
• "minders" sequester the bomber in a safe house,
  isolated from family and friends
• A film crew makes a martyrdom video, to help
  ensure that the bomber can't back out and for
  propaganda and recruitment purposes
• Reconnaissance teams have scouted the target and
  help deliver the bomber close to the target
• Culture does not equal society. Specific social
  organization rather than general culture produces
  violence.

25
Racism and Colonization

• Religion is more timeless than other aspects of
  culture. Economic structures can lead to
  cultural conflict as well, most notably in the
  imperialism that emerged from European
  colonization of the rest of the world from the
  16th-20th centuries.
• Racism was an essential part of the ideology
  required by Europeans to maintain their empires.
  Racism was preached in the academy (based on
  sciences as phrenology), and only got a bad
  name because of Hitler. Other races were
  considered inferior (less advanced) and incapable
  of governing themselves.

26
Empire, End of Empire, and Karl Marx

• The white mans burden was to spread
  civilization. As one African writer wrote, at
  the beginning of colonization, we had the land
  and they had the Bible, and at the end of it,
  they had the land and we had the Bible.
• Said (1993) writes that in 1800 Western powers
  held about 35 of the earths land, in 1878 67,
  and by 1914 85. To project power over such
  distances and spaces with such a small population
  required a functional ideology of racism.
• Racism has declined with the age of empires. A
  case of beliefs flowing from the means of
  production that is the core tenet of Marxism.

27
Nationalism as Resistance to Imperialism

• Western superiority by the turn of the 20th
  century was so marked as to destroy the
  confidence if not the constitution of other
  civilizations.
• Traditional systems of sovereignty based on
  feudal or tribal structures have all but
  disappeared. What energized the non-Western
  worlds resistance to Western imperialism was
  nationalism, reinvigorating ideas of peoplehood
  through new leadership claiming more horizontal
  inclusiveness.

28
Nationalism as Prejudicial Ideology

• Nationalism is necessary for liberation from
  imperialism and other forms of oppression, but
  can also be the source of terrible misdeeds.
• Can involve claims to national purity security,
  as when the Turks massacred the Armenians in
  1915-16, or resistance to imperialism as claimed
  by Saddam Hussein when he invaded Kuwait, be
  fusion with religion as with Slobodan Milosevic,
  or fused with racism as with Hitler.
• At very minimum, nationalism involves inequality,
  protecting state interests vs. outsiders

29
Correlates of Nationalism

• Nationalism as defined as a feeling of
  superiority over other nations can be
  operationalized as distinct from patriotism which
  involves a love of ones own country
• Nationalism is positively correlated with social
  dominance orientation (SDO), right wing
  authoritarianism (RWA) and ethnocentrism.

30
The emergence of global consciousness

• The new era of unbridled free trade has led to
  unprecedented movement of people and ideas to
  create an interconnected and interpenetrating
  world. Global consciousness involves
  identification with humanity as a whole instead
  of particular groups, and may be an antidote for
  ideological prejudices.
• Preliminary data indicate that in the USA,
  national identity and global consciousness are
  negatively correlated, whereas in Japan there is
  no relationship, and in Taiwan and China they are
  positively correlated.

31
What will be in global consciousness?

• Probably at present it is largely economic, a
  consequence of needing to master the flows of
  money and people and ideas.
• But in the future, humanity may be able to
  construct a more inclusive narrative to create a
  sense of itself as a whole. This narrative will
  have to encompass both unity and diversity,
  commonality and difference.