Module 15 Motivation

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Module 15Motivation
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Theories of Motivation

• Instinct Theory
• Explains behaviors of animals
• Drive-Reduction Theory
• Explains actions to meet biological/physiological
  needs
• Incentive Theory
• Explains that we may do things to obtain external
  rewards
• Cognitive Theory
• Explains that we may do things to satisfy
  personal beliefs or to meet personal goals

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Instinct Theory

• Instinct
• Innate tendencies or biological forces that
  determine behavior
• Fixed action pattern
• Innate biological force that predisposes an
  organism to behave in a fixed way in the presence
  of a specific environmental condition
• Ethologists
• Observe how animals use fixed action patterns in
  adapting to their natural environments
• Lorenz found that soon after birth birds usually
  become attached to, or imprinted on, the first
  moving object they encounter and interact with
  the object as if it was a parent

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Drive-Reduction Theory

• Need results in a drive
• Need is a biological state in which the organism
  lacks something essential for survival (e.g.,
  food, water, O2)
• Drive is a state of tension that motivates the
  organism to return to a state of homeostasis
  (i.e., a more balanced state)

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Drive-Reduction Theory

• Example
• Not eating for a period of time causes a need for
  food, which produces a drive. The drive
  energizes the person to raid the refrigerator.

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Incentive Theory

• Incentive
• Environmental factor that motivates our behaviors
• Examples
• grades
• praise
• money
• college degree

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Cognitive Theory Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic
Motivation

• Extrinsic motivation
• Engaging in certain activities/behaviors that
  either reduce biological needs or help us to
  obtain incentives/ external rewards
• Intrinsic motivation
• Engaging in certain activities/behaviors because
  the behaviors themselves are personally rewarding
  OR because engaging in these activities fulfill
  our beliefs/expectations

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Biological Social Needs

• Biological needs
• Physiological requirements that are critical to
  our survival and physical well-being
• Examples
• food
• water
• sleep
• avoidance of pain
• Social needs
• Needs that are acquired through learning and
  experience
• Examples
• achievement motive
• affiliative motive
• nurturance motive
• autonomy motive

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Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

• A 5-level hierarchy where biological needs are at
  the bottom social needs are at the top
• Level 1- Physiological needs
• Food, water, sex, sleep
• Level 2 Safety needs
• Protection from harm
• Level 3 Love Belonging needs
• Affiliation with others acceptance by others

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Maslows Hierarchy of Needs (cont.)

• Level 4 Esteem needs
• Achievement, competency, gaining approval
  recognition
• Level 5 Self-actualization
• Fulfillment of ones unique potential

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Optimal Weight Overweight

• Optimal/Ideal Weight
• An almost perfect balance between how much food
  an organism eats how much it needs to meet its
  bodys energy needs
• Calorie
• Measure of how much energy food contains
• Overweight
• Person is 20 over their ideal weight
• Insurance Weights
• Shape.com
• U.S. Army

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3 Hunger Factors

• Biological hunger factors
• Come from physiological changes in blood
  chemistry signals from digestive organs that
  provide feedback to the brain, which triggers us
  to stop eating
• Psychosocial hunger factors
• Come from learned associations between food
  other stimuli
• snacking while watching TV
• Socio-cultural pressures to be thin
• Genetic hunger factors
• Come from inherited instructions found in our
  genes

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Biological Hunger Factors

• Peripheral Cues
• Come from changes in blood chemistry or signals
  from digestive organs
• Central Cues
• Come from the activity of chemicals and
  neurotransmitters in different areas of the brain

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4 Genetic Hunger Factors

• Number of fat cells
• People who inherit a larger number of fat cells
  have the ability to store more fat are more
  likely to be fatter than average
• Metabolic rates
• How efficiently our bodies break down food into
  energy how quickly our bodies burn the fuel
• Set Point
• A certain level of body fat that our bodies try
  to keep constant throughout our lives
• Weight-regulating genes
• Play a role in influencing appetite, metabolism,
  hormone secretions

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Psychosocial Hunger Factors

• Learned Associations
• Eating because it is lunchtime, not because you
  are hungry
• Social-Cultural Influences
• The government of the Czech Republic subsidized
  cheap fatty sausage and dairy products in the
  1970s it now has the worlds highest death rates
  from heart disease
• Personality Traits
• Some traits are associated with eating problems
• oversensitive to rejection
• excessively concerned about approval from others
• high personal standards for achievement

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3 Sex Factors

• Genetic Sex Factors
• Include the following
• inherited instructions for the development of
  sexual organs
• secretion of sex hormones
• wiring of neural circuits that control sexual
  reflexes
• Biological Sex Factors
• Include the following
• action of sex hormones involved in secondary sex
  characteristics
• sexual motivation
• development of ova sperm

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3 Sex Factors cont.

• Psychological Sex Factors
• Play a role in developing the following
• a sexual or gender identity
• gender role
• gender orientation
• enjoyment of sexual activities

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Biological Sex Factors

• Sex Hormones
• Chemicals secreted by glands, circulate in the
  bloodstream to influence the brain, body organs,
  behaviors
• Major male hormones androgens
• Major female hormones estrogens

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Psychological Influences on Sexual Behavior

• Gender Identity
• Individuals subjective experience feelings of
  being either male or female
• Gender Roles
• Traditional or stereotypic behaviors, attitudes,
  and personality traits that society designates as
  masculine or feminine
• Sexual Orientation
• Homosexual Orientation
• pattern of sexual arousal by people of the same
  sex
• Bisexual Orientation
• pattern of sexual arousal by people of both sexes
• Heterosexual Orientation
• pattern of sexual arousal by people of the
  opposite sex

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Homosexuality

• Statistics
• 1-3 of American males
• 1.4 of American females
• Genetic/Biological Factors
• Concordance Rates from Twin Studies
• Identical Twins 48-65
• Fraternal Twins 26-30
• Adopted brothers/sisters 6-11

• Psychological Factors
• A tendency to develop a homosexual orientation
  was found among young boys who
• preferred female playmates girls toys
• avoided rough tumble play AND
• engaged in wearing girls clothing

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Sexual Response, Problems Treatments

• 2 Categories of sexual problems
• Paraphilias
• repetitive or preferred sexual fantasies
  involving non-human objects
• Sexual dysfunction
• problems of sexual arousal or orgasm that
  interfere with adequate functioning during sexual
  behavior
• Example premature or rapid ejaculation,
  inhibited female orgasm

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Sexual Response, Problems Treatments

• Finding the Cause
• Organic Factors
• medical conditions, drug, or medication problems
  that lead to sexual difficulties
• Psychological Factors
• performance anxiety, sexual trauma, guilt or
  failure to communicate

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AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

• In 1999, there were about 34 million people
  worldwide infected with human immunodeficiency
  virus (HIV)
• HIV
• Presence of HIV antibodies
• AIDS
• Individual is HIV positive T-cell level is less
  than 200 per cubic ml of blood or has developed
  one or more of 26 specified illnesses

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AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
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Female Circumcision

• What Is it?
• Cutting away the females external genitalia,
  sewing together the remaining edges, leaving
  only a small opening for urination and
  menstruation
• What Is Its Purpose?
• Common ritual to physically mark young girls and
  increase their chances for future marriage
• Usually occurs between the ages of 4 and 10
• Are there complications?
• Infections, severe pain, bleeding, hemorrhaging
  can lead to shock and death
• Is there a solution?
• U.N. health organizations have endorsed
  anti-circumcision laws, but such laws would not
  eliminate the strong sociocultural tradition that
  supports this practice

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Need for Achievement

• Desire to set challenging goals to persist in
  pursuing those goals despite obstacles,
  frustrations, setbacks
• Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
• Personality test used to measure need for
  achievement

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Fear of Failure

• People who are motivated to avoid failure by
  choosing easy, non-challenging tasks where
  failure is less likely to occur
• Self-handicapping
• Making up excuses to explain failure outcomes

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Underachievers

• Individuals who score high on tests of
  ability/intelligence, but do not perform as well
  as their scores would predict
• Characteristics
• Poor self-concept
• Low self-esteem
• Poor peer relations
• Shy
• Lack of persistence

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Eating Disorders

• Anorexia Nervosa
• Academy for Eating Disorders
• Bulimia Nervosa

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Symptoms of an Eating Disorder

• Anorexia/Bulimia
• Dramatic weight loss in a relatively short period
  of time.
• Wearing big or baggy clothes or dressing in
  layers to hide body shape and/or weight loss.
• Obsession with weight and complaining of weight
  problems (even if "average" weight or thin).
• Obsession with calories and fat content of foods.
  
• Obsession with continuous exercise.
• Frequent trips to the bathroom immediately
  following meals (sometimes accompanied with water
  running in the bathroom for a long period of time
  to hide the sound of vomiting).

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Symptoms of an Eating Disorder

• Visible food restriction and self-starvation.
• Visible bingeing and/or purging.
• Use or hiding use of diet pills, laxatives,
  ipecac syrup (can cause immediate death!) or
  enemas.
• Isolation. Fear of eating around and with others.
  
• Unusual Food rituals such as shifting the food
  around on the plate to look eaten cutting food
  into tiny pieces making sure the fork avoids
  contact with the lips (using teeth to scrap food
  off the fork or spoon) chewing food and spitting
  it out, but not swallowing dropping food into
  napkin on lap to later throw away.
• Hiding food in strange places (closets, cabinets,
  suitcases, under the bed) to avoid eating
  (Anorexia) or to eat at a later time (Bulimia).

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Symptoms of an Eating Disorder

• Flushing uneaten food down the toilet (can cause
  sewage problems).
• Vague or secretive eating patterns.
• Keeping a "food diary" or lists that consists of
  food and/or behaviors (ie., purging, restricting,
  calories consumed, exercise, etc.)
• Pre-occupied thoughts of food, weight and
  cooking.
• Visiting websites that promote unhealthy ways to
  lose weight.
• Reading books about weight loss and eating
  disorders.
• Self-defeating statements after food consumption.
  
• Hair loss. Pale or "grey" appearance to the skin.
  
• Dizziness and headaches.
• Frequent soar throats and/or swollen glands.

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Symptoms of an Eating Disorder

• Low self-esteem. Feeling worthless. Often putting
  themselves down and complaining of being "too
  stupid" or "too fat" and saying they don't
  matter. Need for acceptance and approval from
  others.
• Complaints of often feeling cold.
• Low blood pressure.
• Loss of menstrual cycle.
• Constipation or incontinence.
• Bruised or calluses knuckles bloodshot or
  bleeding in the eyes light bruising under the
  eyes and on the cheeks.
• Perfectionist personality.
• Loss of sexual desire or promiscuous relations.
• Mood swings. Depression. Fatigue.
• Insomnia. Poor sleeping habits

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Characteristics of Anorexia Nervosa

• Refusing to eat
• Body weight is less than 85 of expected body
  weight
• Intense fear of weight gain
• Missing at least 3 consecutive menstrual cycles

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Characteristics of Bulimia Nervosa

• Minimum of 2 binge-eating episodes per week for
  at least 3 months
• Fear of not being able to stop eating
• Regularly engaging in compensatory behaviors such
  as vomiting, use of laxatives, dieting, fasting
• Excessive concern about body shape weight

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Treatment for Eating Disorders

• Anorexia
• In-hospital treatment focusing on gaining weight
• Bulimia
• Psychotherapy
• Antidepressant medication