(Structural) Cohesion in Organizations

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(Structural) Cohesion in Organizations
Douglas R. White University of California
Irvine With James Moody The Ohio State
University
Séminaire " Réseaux et régulation " Lasmas,
IRESCO, Paris, June 2003
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Structural Cohesion for Organizations

• Part One Predictive Cohesion Theory for
  Cohesive Blocks and Ridges in Organizations
• Theory and Dynamical Networks Case Study
  Examples using Pajek
• k-ridges of Structural Cohesion (an extension of
  Friedkins work on cohesion in formal
  organizations)
• Cohesive Blocks in High School Friendships (w
  Moody)
• Cohesive Dynamics the splitting of blocks in
  organizations (with Harary)
• Cohesion Dynamics in Biotechnology (with Powell)
• Part Two Predictive Cohesion Theory for
  Marriage, Class, Community and Ethnicity

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Structural Cohesion for Organizations, Kinship
Networks and Demography

• Outline Part Two
• Introduction Concepts for Network Cohesion in
  Marriage, Class, Community and Ethnicity
• A Network Approach to Marriage Rules and
  Strategies via Controlled Demographic Simulation
• Representing Kinship as A Network P-graphs
• Case Study Examples
• Emergence and Fission of Groups in Social
  Networks
• Elite and Class Cohesion via Structural Endogamy
• Community/Ethnic Cohesion via Structural Endogamy

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Introduction some questions of interest

• 1 What is the influence of demography on social
  structure and the reverse?
• 2 How does one measure the demography of marriage
  and network behaviors in human populations?
• 3 What is the influence of social structure on
  such behaviors?
• For this purpose social structure is the
  network of social bonds among people and with
  things to which people have significant links
  (property, ideas, material and ecological items).
  
• Some aspects of social institutions are implied
  or included in this definition insofar as they
  are an emergent result of social/legal/political
  bonds and of responses to demographic pressures.

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Structural demography might include

• The social field of kinship as the place of
  (social) reproduction in which structural
  endogamies define the reproductive boundaries of
  social class, ethnic identities, kinship groups,
  and so forth.
• The social field of groups, in which cohesion and
  coordinated social action emerges within social
  networks and connectivities define the limits of
  cooperation and competition
• The social field of stratification in which
  groups (or individuals) are situated (i.e. occupy
  structural positions) and centralities define
  inequalities among individuals and groups within
  social networks.

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The importance of measurement concepts in
structural demography

• Network-based concepts such as structural
  endogamy, multiconnectivity, and centrality, when
  applied to large scale (community/nation)
  networks allows the possibility of a social
  network approach to questions about
• longitudinal and historical studies of entire
  large populations
• social studies on norms and behavior
• studies of the relation between the structural
  positions of individuals and their behavior
• relationships between social structure and
  demographic variables

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Cohesion via multiple independent paths

• The cohesion of a graph G is independent of path
  distances between nodes, and is in this sense a
  distributed property of G.
• Why do we expect that multiple independent paths,
  independent of distances among nodes, will have
  important effects above and beyond proximal and
  highly distance-dependant effects of interaction?
• Briefly, independent of distance (a) Two nodes
  with k node-independent paths are k times as
  resistant to being pulled apart than if they are
  connected by a single path, and (b) The effects
  of k node-independent paths within cohesive
  blocks are convergent and their effects may thus
  be self reinforcing. The higher the connectivity
  k, the more cohesive blocks are redundantly
  connected (solidary) in this way, and the greater
  their potential to act as amplifiers for coherent
  patterns of organization.
• This concept is useful for generating hypotheses
  relating to social networks generally and to
  kinship networks in particular.

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Applications of Structural Cohesion

• Emergence and Fission of Groups in Social
  Networks
• Elite and Class Cohesion
• Community/Ethnic Cohesion
• The Cohesiveness of Blocks in Social Networks
  Node Connectivity and Conditional Density (drw
  and Frank Harary). 2001. Sociological Methodology
  2001, vol. 31, no. 1, pp. 305-359
• Social Cohesion and Embeddedness A hierarchical
  conception of social groups (Moody and White).
  2003. American Sociological Review 68(1)101-24.

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Controlled Demographic Simulation A Network
Approach to Discovering Marriage Rules and
Strategies

• In a quantitative science of social structure
  that includes marriage and kinship, how does one
• define and evaluate marriage strategies relative
  to random baselines?
• separate randomizing strategy from
  preferential strategy?
• detect atomistic strategies (partial, selective)
  as well as global or elementary marriage-rules
  or strategies?
• Controlled Simulation of Marriage Systems,
  1999. Journal of Artificial Societies and Social
  Simulation 3(2). White

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Defining the phenomena of endogamy

• Endogamy is the custom of marrying only within
  the limits of a clan or tribe.
• Practical Strategies
• By categories/attributes
• suffers from problems of specification error
  
• By network relinking
• the generalized phenomena of structural endogamy
  as blocks of generalized relinking, (a special
  case of network cohesion) with
• Subblocks of k-relinkings of k families, with
  g-depth in generations
• Subblocks of consanguinal (blood) marriage as
  within-family relinkings

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Data and RepresentationBuilding Kinship Networks

• To analyze large-scale kinship networks, we need
  a generalizable graph representation of kinship
  networks.
• Problems
• Cultural definitions of kin lead to
  cross-cultural ambiguity
• Forced to pick primary relations (marriage,
  descent) against implied relations (siblings,
  cousins, etc.) or include a complete graph with
  multiple labeling

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Programs Availability PAJEK

• PAJEK reads genealogical datasets (.ged files)
  both the usual Ego format and in Pgraph format,
  with dotted female lines (p Dots) and solid male
  lines.
• PAJEK Network/Partition/Components/Bicomponent
  computes structural endogamy
• PAJEK Network/Partition/Depth/Genealogy computes
  genealogical depth. This enabled 2D or 3D
  drawings of kinship networks.
• Manuals for p-graph kinship analysis and
  discussions of software programs multimedia
  representations are contained in
• 1) Analyzing Large Kinship and Marriage Networks
  with pgraph and Pajek, Social Science Computer
  Review 17(3)245-274. 1999 Douglas R. White,
  Vladimir Batagelj Andrej Mrvar.
• 2) http//eclectic.ss.uci.edu/pgraph
• 3) http//vlado.fmf.uni-lj.si/pub/networks/pajek

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Applications of Structural Endogamy Social Class

• Social class as a general way of life, a
  sub-culture, tends to be hereditary because (a)
  individuals from the same sub-culture tend to
  intermarry, and (b) parents bring up their
  children to imitate themselves. (Leach, 1970).
• If we were to examine the extent to which
  particular social class formations were
  concomitant with structural endogamy, we would
  expect that
• Families involved would know "good families and
  "suitable matches,
• not all children of the class would be "required"
  to marry within the class, but social class
  inscription would take place through the diffuse
  agency of relinking by marriage,
• which could both validate the social standing of
  the individual and constitute the diffuse but
  relinked social unit -- endogamic block -- of
  class formation.

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Organizational Applications of Structural
Endogamy Social Class Carinthian Farmers
Class is rooted in relations to property, but
the holding of property is particularistic, bound
by social relations that channel its inheritance
within particular sets of personal biographies,
such as those linked by kinship and marriage. As
property flows through a social network, its
biography unfolds as a history of the transfer
from person to person or group to group.
(p.162) Institutions (such as class), emerge out
of the networked actions and choices devolving in
turn in specific and changing historical context.
A duality of persons and property, each linked
through the others, thus characterizes the class
system.
Source 1997 Class, Property and Structural
Endogamy Visualizing Networked Histories,
Theory and Society 25161-208. Lilyan Brudner and
Douglas White
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Organizational Applications of Structural
Endogamy Social Class Carinthian Farmers

• Empirical setting Inheritance of property among
  families in an Austrian Village
• Background In the Austrian farming valleys of
  southern Carinthia, the perpetuation of Slovenian
  ethnicities and Windisch dialects has been
  associated with heirship of farmsteads. Unlike
  many rural areas (and as predicted by Weber and
  others), farms tended to be inherited complete,
  without the kind of splitting that fractures
  classes.
• Main hypothesis That two social classes emerged
  historically in this village and have long
  remained distinct as a product of differential
  marriage strategies.
• The mechanism for keeping land intact is that a
  structurally endogamous farmstead-owner social
  class emerged from marriages that relinked stem
  family or heirship lines that were already
  intermarried. The relinked couples inheriting
  farmsteads recombined primary heirships with
  secondary quitclaim land parcels allowing
  stability in reconstituting impartible-core
  farmsteads.

Source 1997 Class, Property and Structural
Endogamy Visualizing Networked Histories,
Theory and Society 25161-208. Lilyan Brudner and
Douglas White
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Organizational Applications of Structural
Endogamy Social Class Carinthian Farmers

• Data
• Extensive field work
• Archival Records of farmstead transfers starting
  in the 16th century
• Genealogical histories on families collected by
  Brudner
• Supplemented from data collected by White from
  gravestones and church records
• Facts about the setting
• Village population has been (relatively) stable
  from 1759 1961, fluctuating between 618 (1923)
  to 720 (1821)
• Most transfers are through inheritance, but the
  data includes purchases as well.
• Daughters tend to move to their husbands house of
  residence
• Purchase of farmsteads for sons is common, but
  rare for daughters
• Daughters tend to bring a land dowry to a
  marriage

Source 1997 Class, Property and Structural
Endogamy Visualizing Networked Histories,
Theory and Society 25161-208. Lilyan Brudner and
Douglas White
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Organizational Applications of Structural
Endogamy Social Class Carinthian Farmers
Source 1997 Class, Property and Structural
Endogamy Visualizing Networked Histories,
Theory and Society 25161-208. Lilyan Brudner and
Douglas White
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Organizational Applications of Structural
Endogamy Social Class Carinthian Farmers
Source 1997 Class, Property and Structural
Endogamy Visualizing Networked Histories,
Theory and Society 25161-208. Lilyan Brudner and
Douglas White
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Organizational Applications of Structural
Endogamy Social Class Carinthian Farmers
Source 1997 Class, Property and Structural
Endogamy Visualizing Networked Histories,
Theory and Society 25161-208. Lilyan Brudner and
Douglas White
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Organizational Applications of Structural
Endogamy Elite Structural Endogamy Rural
Javanese Elites
Empirical Setting Muslim village elites have
their own compounds and extensive landholdings
that qualify them for village leadership. They
often marry blood relatives, while commoners do
not. Key questions Javanese peasant villages
are often characterized as a loose social
structure. Is the blood-marriage endogamy we see
among village elites simply due to the
demographic constraints imposed by very
restricted size of the elite group, with the
elites and commoners sharing the same loose
rules of marriage? Data Extensive field work,
genealogies and ethnography by Thomas Schweizer
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• Statistical tests of the STATUS ENDOGAMY
  hypothesis using simulation tests
• for a Javanese Village (Dukuh Hamlet and Muslim
  Elites), Test of Actual versus Simulated
  Marriage among Consanguineal Kin conclusion no
  preferred marriages beyond status endogamy
• key A frequency of actual marriages with a
  given type of relative
• S frequency of simulated random marriages
  with a given type of relative
• TA total of actual relatives of this type
• TS total of simulated relatives of this
  type
• Javanese elites Dukuh Hamlet
  3-Way Test
• A S TA TS p type A S TA TS p type
• 1 1 0 4 3 .625 FBD 0 1 9 12 .591 FBD
  p1.0
• 2 1 2 2 3 .714 MBD 1 0 11 16 .429 MBD
  p1.0
• 3 2 1 3 2 .714 FZDD 0 0 11 0 FZDD
  p1.0
• 4 0 1 6 7 .571 ZD 0 0 18 24 ZD
  p1.0
• 0 0 11 11 Z 0 0 36 43 Z
• 0 0 4 4 BD 0 0 22 27 BD
• 0 0 2 2 ZSD
• 0 0 3 3 BDD 0 0 8 8 BDD
• 0 0 3 3 ZDD

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Organizational Applications of Structural
Endogamy Social Integration through Marriage
Systems Kandyan Irrigation Farmers in Sri Lanka

• Results Reveals that Leach had not seen, and
  could not for lack of requisite tools of
  analysis, that marriages were organized in
  response to a logic called dividedness and (in
  another form) sidedness.
• the matrimonial network is bipartite, the
  marriages of the parents and those of the
  children divide themselves into two distinct
  ensembles (which have nothing to do with
  moieties).
• Graphic technique Nuclear families as the unit
  of p-graph analysis, analysis of blood marriages,
  sibling sets and of inheritance or bequests
  revealed the underlying logic of marital
  sidedness.
• Key concepts bipartite graph and sidedness
  sidedness is an empirical bipartition of a
  matrimonial network, reiterated from one
  generation to another following a sexual
  criterion. The next slide the sidedness of the
  Pul Eliyan networks operating through the male
  line, with some female heirs acting as agnatic
  channels for inheritance where there are no male
  heirs (I.e., they lack brothers).

Source 1998 Network Mediation of Exchange
Structures Ambilateral Sidedness and Property
Flows in Pul Eliya, Sri Lanka (Houseman and
White). pp. 59-89, In, Thomas Schweizer and drw,
eds. Kinship, Networks, and Exchange. CUP.
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P-graph of Pul Eliyan Sidedness
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P-graph of Pul Eliyan Sidedness and Property
Transactions
Curved lines follow property flows, dashed lines
are gifts. Property re-connects across the
sided lines.
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• Frequencies of Actual versus Simulated
  Consanguineal Marriages for Pul Eliya, Sri Lanka.
  Conclusions All blood marriages are
  patri-sided, and secondarily, only
• MBD is a marriage that is especially preferred
• Type Actual Simul Total Total
  Fisher-----Blood Marriage------
  (2)Viri-Sided?
• of Mar. Freq. Freq. Actual Simul Exact type
  P-graph notation Actual Simul
• 12 5 0 40 38 p.042 MBD(1)GFFG
  yes
• 2 3 1 39 40 .317 FZD GGFF
  yes
• 1 0 1 56 57 .508 FZ GGF
  no
• 3 0 1 6 6 .538 FFFZDSD
  GGGGFGFF no
• 4 1 0 3 1 .800 FFMZDSSD
  GGGFFGGFF yes
• 5 0 1 5 3 .444 FFMBDSDD
  GGGFFFGFG no
• 6 1 0 18 15 .558 FMBSD
  GGFFGG yes
• 7 0 1 17 12 .433 FMBDD
  GGFFFG no
• 8 2 1 18 12 .661 FMZDD
  GGFFFF yes
• 9 0 1 9 5 .399 FMMBSSD
  GGFFFGGG no
• 10 0 1 4 5 .600 FMMFZSSD
  GGFFGFGGF yes
• 11 0 1 6 3 .400 FMMFZDSD
  GGFFGFGFF yes
• 13 0 1 25 27 .528 MBSD GFFGG
  yes
• 14 1 0 14 10 .600 MFZDD
  GFGFFF yes

Source 1998 Network Mediation of Exchange
Structures Ambilateral Sidedness and Property
Flows in Pul Eliya, Sri Lanka (Houseman and
White). pp. 59-89, In, Thomas Schweizer and drw,
eds. Kinship, Networks, and Exchange. CUP.
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• Correlating Actual versus Simulated non-MBD
  marriages for Pul Eliya, showing tendency towards
  a Viri-Sided (Dravidian) Marriage Rule
• Viri-Sided Unsided
• Actual 18 0
• Simulated 5 7
• (p.0004 p.000004 using the binomial test of
  5050 expected)

Source 1998 Network Mediation of Exchange
Structures Ambilateral Sidedness and Property
Flows in Pul Eliya, Sri Lanka (Houseman and
White). pp. 59-89, In, Thomas Schweizer and drw,
eds. Kinship, Networks, and Exchange. CUP.
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• Correlating Balanced vs. Unbalanced Cycles in
  Actual versus Simulated marriage networks for Pul
  Eliya, showing a perfectly Sided (Dravidian)
  Marriage Rule
• A. Viri-sidedness
• Actual Expected
• Balanced Cycles (Even length) 25 17.5
• Unbalanced Cycles (Odd Length) 10 17.5
  
• p.008
• (all exceptions involve relinkings between
  nonconsanguineal relatives)
• B. Amblilateral-sidedness
  (womens sidedness adjusted by
  inheritance rules)
• Actual Expected
• Balanced Cycles (Even length) 35 17.5
• Unbalanced Cycles (Odd Length) 0 17.5
• p.00000000003

Source 1998 Network Mediation of Exchange
Structures Ambilateral Sidedness and Property
Flows in Pul Eliya, Sri Lanka (Houseman and
White). pp. 59-89, In, Thomas Schweizer and drw,
eds. Kinship, Networks, and Exchange. CUP.
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Organizational Applications of Structural
Endogamy A Turkish Nomadic Clan as prototype of
Middle Eastern segmented lineage systems The
Role of Marital Cohesion
Empirical Setting An Arabized nomadic clan
having the characteristic segmented patrilineages,
lineage endogamy, and FBD (fathers brothers
daughter) marriages Key questions Is this a
prototype of a widespread variety of
decentralized self-organizing lineage system
stemming Arab societies or societies Arabized
along with the spread of Islam in 7th and 8th
century? Data Genealogies on two thousand clan
members and their ancestors, from 1800 to the
present, a long-term ethnography by Professor
Ulla C. Johansen, University of Cologne
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Organizational Applications of Structural
Endogamy A Turkish Nomadic Clan as prototype of
Middle Eastern segmented lineage systems The
Role of Marital Cohesion
Sources 2002 Ulla Johansen and Douglas R.
White, Collaborative Long-Term Ethnography And
Longitudinal Social Analysis of a Nomadic Clan In
Southeastern Turkey, pp. 81-99, Chronicling
Cultures Long-Term Field Research in
Anthropology, eds. R. van Kemper and A. Royce.
AltaMira Press. 2003 Douglas R. White and
Michael Houseman The Navigability of Strong Ties
Small Worlds, Tie Strength and Network Topology,
Complexity 8(1). 2003 Douglas R. White and Ulla
Johansen. Network Analysis and Ethnographic
Problems Process Models of a Turkish Nomad Clan.
Lexington and AltaMira. In Press.
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p-graph of the conicality of the nomad clan
Organizational Applications of Structural
Endogamy A Turkish Nomadic Clan as prototype of
Middle Eastern segmented lineage systems The
Role of Marital Cohesion
Data
Generations
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Organizational Applications of Structural
Endogamy A Turkish Nomadic Clan as prototype of
Middle Eastern segmented lineage systems The
Role of Marital Cohesion
Structural Endogamy of the nomad clan
Results

• The index of relinking of a kinship graph is a
  measure of the extent to which marriages take
  place among descendents of a limited set of
  ancestors.
• For the nomad clan the index of relinking is
  75, which is extremely high by world standards.
• This is a picture of the structurally endogamous
  or relinked marriages within the nomad clan
  (nearly 75 or all marriages)

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Organizational Applications of Structural
Endogamy A Turkish Nomadic Clan as prototype of
Middle Eastern segmented lineage systems The
Role of Marital Cohesion
Results reversing axes, types of marriage are
ranked here to show that numbers of blood
marriages follow a power-law (indexical of
self-organizing preferential attachments) while
affinal relinking frequencies follow an
exponential distribution
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Organizational Applications of Structural
Endogamy A Turkish Nomadic Clan as prototype of
Middle Eastern segmented lineage systems The
Role of Marital Cohesion
Results Summary

• Who stays and who returns to village life is
  predicted from kinship bicomponent membership.
• Bicomponent relinking also plays a role in the
  emergence of a root ancestor, and of more
  localized root ancestors for different levels of
  kinship groupings.
• Dynamic reconfigurations of political factions
  and their leaders are predicted from ensembles
  with different levels of edge-independent
  connectivity.
• An index of the decline of cohesion of the clan
  would be the fragmentation of cohesive components
  in later generations...
• Key concepts bicomponent, edge-independent
  paths, connectivity.
• Graphic technique nuclear families as the unit
  of p-graph analysis.
• An explanation of methods will be found in a book
  ms. Social Dynamics of a Nomadic Clan in
  Southeastern Turkey An Introduction to Networked
  Histories. Douglas White and Ulla Johansen. For
  submission to Westview or Altamira Press.

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Conclusion?

• Predictive Cohesion Theory has broad applications
  and empirical support in a variety of studies

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Bibliography Brudner and White. 1997 Class,
Property and Structural Endogamy Visualizing
Networked Histories, Theory and Society
25161-208. Houseman and White. 1998 Network
Mediation of Exchange Structures Ambilateral
Sidedness and Property Flows in Pul Eliya, Sri
Lanka pp. 59-89, In, Thomas Schweizer and drw,
eds. Kinship, Networks, and Exchange. CUP.
Moody and White. 2003. Social Cohesion and
Embeddedness A hierarchical conception of social
groups American Sociological Review 68101-24.
White. 1997. Structural Endogamy and the
graphe de parenté Mathématique, Informatique et
sciences humaines 137107-125. White. 1999.
Controlled Simulation of Marriage Systems
Journal of Artificial Societies and Social
Simulation 3(2). White, Batagelj and Mrvar.
1999. Analyzing Large Kinship and Marriage
Networks with pgraph and Pajek, Social Science
Computer Review 17245-274. White and Harary.
2001. The Cohesiveness of Blocks in Social
Networks Node Connectivity and Conditional
Density Sociological Methodology
31305-359 White and Jorion. 1996. Kinship
Networks and Discrete Structure Theory
Applications and Implications. Social Networks
18267-314 White and Schweizer 1998. Kinship,
Property and Stratification in Rural Java A
Network Analysis pp. 36-58, In, Thomas Schweizer
and Douglas White, eds. Kinship, Networks, and
Exchange. Cambridge University Press.