Chapter 17: Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment, 1550-1800

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Chapter 17Scientific Revolution and
Enlightenment, 1550-1800
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Main Ideas

• The Scientific Revolution gave Europeans a new
  way to view humankinds place in the universe.

• New thinkers, scientists, mathematicians and
  astronomers began to use reason is order to prove
  new theories

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Background to the Revolution

• Medieval scientists, known as natural
  philosophers, focused ancient authorities,
  especially Aristotle, for their scientific
  knowledge
• Renaissance ideals caused European scientists to
  adopt new views and methods

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Background to the Revolution

• Reasons for the Scientific Revolution
• Technical problems
• observation and measurement
• New instruments
• telescope and microscope
• Printing Press
• Spread ideas quickly and to the masses

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JOHANN GUTENBERG

• Inventor of the Printing Press which greatly
  enhanced communication and literacy across the
  globe

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Background to the Revolution

• Reasons for the Scientific Revolution (continued)
• study of mathematics
• Secrets of nature written in mathematics
• Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, Newton, and
  othersdeveloped new theories that became the
  foundation of the Scientific Revolution

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The Popularization of Science in the Age of the
Enlightenment. This illustration shows the
German prince Frederick Christian visiting his
Academy of Sciences in 1739. Note the many
instruments of the new science around the
roomshuman skeletons, globes, microscopes,
telescopes, and orreries, mechanical models of
the solar system.
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A Revolution in Astronomy

• geocentric (Earth is at the center) model of the
  universe called the Ptolemaic system

• Spheres revolves in circular motion around the
  Earth.
• The tenth sphere is the prime mover, which
  moves itself and gives motion to the other
  spheres.
• Beyond this is Heaven, where God and all the
  saved souls reside.

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Ptolemaic Universe
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A Revolution in Astronomy

• Nicholas Copernicus contradicted this theory and
  published his famous work, On the Revolutions of
  the Heavenly Spheres.

• heliocentric (with the Sun in the center) theory
• he argued that all the planets revolved around
  the sun, the Moon revolved around Earth, and
  Earth rotated on its axis.

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Copernican Universe
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A Revolution in Astronomy

• Johannes Kepler also helped destroy the Ptolemaic
  system.

• Used math to confirm that the Sun was at the
  center of the universe.

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Galileo Galilei

• Father of Modern Science
• Used his telescope to re-confirm that the sun was
  in fact at the center of the universe
• Also wanted to figure out what planets were made
  of

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A Revolution in Astronomy

• Galileos work began to make Europeans aware of
  the new view of the universe.

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A Revolution in Astronomy

• Galileo got into trouble with the Catholic
  Church, which ordered him to abandon the new
  system because the Copernican system went against
  the Church and the Bible.

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Isaac Newton

• What explains motion in the universe?

• Newton published his views in Principia.
• He defined the three laws of motion in the
  universe

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A Revolution in Astronomy

• Isaac Newton Continued
• universal law of gravitation every object in the
  universe is attracted to every other object by a
  force called gravity
• Planets traveled in elliptical orbits

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Breakthroughs in Medicine and Chemistry

• Andreas Vesalius, published in his On the Fabric
  of the Human Body
• Breakthrough in anatomy with drawings of muscles,
  tendons, etc

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Breakthroughs in Medicine and Chemistry

• William Harveys On the Motion of the Heart and
  Blood
• Heart pumps blood (not the liver)
• He also showed that the same blood runs through
  veins and arteries
• blood makes a complete circuit through the body

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Breakthroughs in Medicine and Chemistry

• Robert Boyle
• Chemist whose ideas were based on close
  observation and experiment
• Boyles Law about gasesthe volume of a gas
  varies with the pressure exerted on it

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Women and the Origins of Modern Science

• Margaret Cavendish
• female scientist
• Observations Upon Experimental Philosophy, said
  humans, through science, were the masters of
  nature.

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Women and the Origins of Modern Science

• In Germany, many women scientists were
  astronomers
• Maria Winkelmann discovered a comet
• Denied further work as an astronomer
• Conflicted with ideas of the roles of women at
  the time

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Descartes and Reason

• René Descartes
• In his Discourse on Method (1637), says that he
  can rationally be sure of his own existence.
• he would accept only those things his reason said
  were true
• I think, therefore I am
• father of modern rationalism
• reason is the chief source of knowledge

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The Scientific Method

• During the Scientific Revolution, people were
  concerned about how they could best understand
  the physical universe
• They created the scientific method
• The philosopher Francis Bacon was most
  responsible for this method

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an unproven theory
observation
change it, discard it, or let it stand as is
Click the mouse button or press theSpace Bar to
display the answers.
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The Scientific Method

• Bacon emphasized inductive reasoning
• He believed science was to give humankind new
  discoveries and the power to serve human purposes
  by conquering nature in action.
• The control and domination of nature became an
  important concern of science and its accompanying
  technology

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Chapter 17, Section 2The Enlightenment
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Main Ideas

• Eighteenth-century thinkers used the ideas of the
  Scientific Revolution to reexamine all aspects of
  life.

• This would be known as the Enlightenment.

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Path to the Enlightenment

• The Enlightenment was a philosophical movement
  built on the achievements of the Scientific
  Revolution.
• reason, natural law, hope, and progress

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John Locke

• greatly influenced Enlightenment thinkers.
• born with a mind that is a blank slate and that
  knowledge comes to it through the five senses.
• society was governed by natural laws

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Path to the Enlightenment

• Enlightenment thinkers hoped to discover with the
  scientific method the laws that everyone should
  follow to produce the ideal society

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Philosophes and Their Ideas

• Immanuel Kant summed up the Enlightenment in two
  Latin words
• sapere aude dare to know (i.e. have the courage
  to think for yourself. )
• The philosophes used reason to overcome obstacles
  to free thought and social reform.

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Philosophes and Their Ideas

• philosophe (philosopher) enlightenment thinkers
• Most were writers, professors, economists,
  journalists, and social reformers
• Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Diderot

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Montesquieu

• studied governments to find the natural laws
  governing social and political relationships
• The Spirit of the Laws
• identified three kinds of government republics,
  despotism, and monarchies

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Montesquieu and Political Thought

• His analysis of the English monarchy is his most
  lasting contribution
• government functioned through a separation of
  powers controlled by checks and balances
• influenced the American framers of the
  Constitution.

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Voltaire and the Enlightenment

• Voltaire

• Voltaire was best known for his criticism of
  Christianity and his belief in religious
  toleration.
• Deism- religious philosophy based on reason and
  natural law.

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Diderot and the Encyclopedia

• Denis Diderots most important contribution to
  the Enlightenment was the Encyclopedia.

• The Encyclopedia spread the ideas of the
  Enlightenment

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Toward a New Social Science

• The Enlightenments belief that Newtons methods
  of the Scientific Revolution could discover the
  natural laws of society led to the creation of
  what we call the social sciences, such as
  economics and political science.

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Toward a New Social Science

• Adam Smith founded modern economics
• if people were free to pursue their economic
  self-interest, all society would benefit
• laissez-faire hands off government politics

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Toward a New Social Science

• Smith said the government had only three
  legitimate functions
• protecting society from invasion (army),
• defending citizens from injustice (police),
• and maintaining public works like roads and
  canals that private individuals could not afford.

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Toward a New Social Science

• Cesare Beccaria On Crimes and Punishments
• No excessive brutality
• argued against capital punishment

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The Later Enlightenment

• A new generation of philosophes emerged by the
  1760s.

• Jean-Jacques Rousseau -Discourse on the Origins
  of the Inequality of Mankind
• argued that people formed governments and laws to
  protect their private property, but the
  government relationship enslaved them.

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The Later Enlightenment--Rousseau

• he presented the idea of a social contract in
  which members of society agree to be governed by
  the general will, which represents what is best
  for society as a whole
• education should nurture, not restrict,
  childrens natural instincts
• he believed that emotions, as well as reason,
  were important to human development

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Rights of Women

• Mary Wollstonecraft is considered the founder of
  the European and American movement for womens
  rights.
• She argued that women were as rational as men and
  as capable of being responsible free citizens.

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Rights of Women

• A Vindication of the Rights of Women
• Power of men over women was equally wrong
• women are rational beings, so they should have
  the same rights as menin educational, economic,
  and political life

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Social World of the Enlightenment

• The Enlightenment ideas were most known among the
  wealthy and well-read
• Great increase in literacy and books

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Social World of the Enlightenment

• Enlightenment ideas also spread at the salon

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Social World of the Enlightenment

• Salons were gatherings in the elegant homes of
  the wealthy.
• The guests took part in conversations, often
  about the new philosophical ideas.
• Nobles, thinkers, artists, and government
  officials attended these salons. Some became very
  famous.
• The women who hosted them could sway political
  opinion and influence literary and artistic taste

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Religion in the Enlightenment

• Most of the philosophes attacked the Christian
  churches, but most Europeans of the time were
  very religious
• The desire of ordinary Protestants for a greater
  depth of religious experience led to new
  religious movements

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Religion in the Enlightenment

• One new religious movement was Methodism

• John Wesley had a mystical experience in which
  the gift of Gods grace assured him of
  salvation.

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Religion in the Enlightenment

• Wesley preached to masses and appealed mostly to
  lower classes
• Caused conversions
• Many Methodists helped each other do good works,
  which gave to the lower and middle classes a
  sense of purpose
• Methodism became a separate Protestant group

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Chapter 17, Section 3The Impact of the
Enlightenment
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Main Ideas

• Enlightenment beliefs were reflected in the art,
  music, and literature of the time.
• Enlightenment thought impacted the politics of
  Europe in the eighteenth century.

People to Identify

• Bach
• Handel
• Haydn

• Frederick the Great
• Maria Theresa
• Catherine the Great

• Mozart

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The Arts

• The Enlightenment had a large impact on culture
• European monarchs tried to emulate Versailles,
  but in the Italian baroque style, not the French
  classical
• They created a new kind of architecture
• By the 1730s, a new artistic stylerococohad
  emerged

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The Arts

• While the baroque style stressed grandeur and
  power, the rococo style emphasized grace, charm,
  and gentle action

• It was highly secular, valuing the pursuit of
  pleasure, happiness, and love
• The greatest rococo painter was Antoine Watteau

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The Arts

• Enchantment and enthusiasm are also part of
  rococo, as is evident in the paintings of
  Giovanni Battista Tiepolo

• His masterpiece is the ceiling of the bishops
  residence at Würzburg, a huge scene representing
  the four continents

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The Arts--Music

• The eighteenth century was one of the greatest in
  history for European music

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Enlightenment and Enlightened Absolutism

• The philosophes believed in natural rights for
  all people (i.e. the rights mentioned in the
  Declaration of Independence).
• The philosophes believed that enlightened rulers
  were to establish and preserve these.
• These rulers were to nurture the arts, sciences,
  and education, and to enforce the laws fairly
  over all subjects

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Enlightenment and Enlightened Absolutism

• Enlightened absolutism is a term used to describe
  the monarchies that emerged at this time
• According to this view, monarchs of this time
  tried to govern by Enlightenment principles while
  retaining royal power.
• We examined three states where philosophes tried
  to influence rulers to make enlightened reforms
  Prussia, Austria, and Russia

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Enlightenment and Enlightened Absolutism

• Frederick William I and Frederick II made Prussia
  a European power in the eighteenth century
• Frederick William I tried to maintain a highly
  efficient bureaucracy, whose values were
  obedience, honor, and service to the king.
• Nobles who owned large estates were officers in
  the Prussian army
• They believed in duty, obedience, and sacrifice,
  and were loyal to the king

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Enlightenment and Enlightened Absolutism

• Frederick II, or Frederick the Great, was one of
  Europes most cultured kings
• He knew and adopted some Enlightenment ideas
• He abolished torture, except in treason and
  murder cases, and granted limited freedom of
  speech, limited freedom of the press, and greater
  religious toleration.
• As a boy

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Enlightenment and Enlightened Absolutism

• Austria was major power by the 18th century
• Empress Maria Theresa, who came to the throne in
  1740, centralized the Austrian Empire and
  strengthened the states power
• Her successor, Joseph II, was more influenced by
  the philosophes.
• Abolished serfdom and the death penalty.
• He recognized equality before the law and enacted
  religious reforms, including toleration

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Enlightenment and Enlightened Absolutism

• After several weak rulers following Peter the
  Greats death, Catherine the Great, the German
  wife of the murdered Peter III, came to the
  Russian throne
• She ruled from 1762 to 1796
• She knew the ideas of the Enlightenment and even
  invited Diderot to speak in Russia
• In the end, she did not adopt Enlightenment
  reforms because she needed the support of the
  Russian nobility

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Enlightenment and Enlightened Absolutism
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Enlightenment and Enlightened Absolutism

• The theory of enlightened absolutism seems
  questionable and was ultimately unsuccessful
• Most of these three governments did not institute
  Enlightenment reforms
• The decisions the rulers made were ultimately
  about the well-being of their states and
  increasing the states power

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War of Austrian Succession

• The War of the Austrian Succession (1740 to
  1748) was fought in Europe, the Far East, and
  North America
• Maria Theresa succeeded her father to the
  Austrian throne after his death in 1740
• The Prussian king took advantage of having a
  woman on the throne and invaded Austria
• France allied with Prussia, and Britain allied
  with Austria

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War of Austrian Succession

• In 1748, the War of Austrian Succession ended
  with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, and all
  occupied territories but Silesia were returned to
  their original owners
• Two new rivalries took center stage France and
  Britain over colonial empires and Austria and
  Prussia over Silesia
• Maria Theresa refused to accept the loss of
  Silesia

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Seven Years War

• In 1756, another worldwide war broke outin
  Europe, India, and North America

• The superb Prussian army was able to defeat the
  French, Austrians, and Russians for time

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Seven Years War
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Seven Years War

• Prussian forces were being worn down, however,
  and Frederick the Great faced disaster until the
  czar Peter III withdrew his troops from the war
• A stalemate led to peace
• In 1763, under the Treaty of Paris, all occupied
  territories were returned and Austria officially
  recognized Prussias permanent control of Silesia

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Seven Years War

• The greatest conflicts of the Seven Years War
  took place in North America
• The French colonies in North America (Canada and
  Louisiana) were thinly populated trading outposts
  because the French settlers would not move to
  North America
• The 13 British colonies were thickly populated
  with more than 1 million people by 1750 and were
  also were quite prosperous

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Seven Years War

• The British and French fought in the waterways of
  the Gulf of St. Lawrence in Canada and in the
  Ohio River valley
• The French tried to establish forts in this
  valley to keep the British settlers from
  expanding into new territory

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Seven Years War

• At first the French were winning, but then
  William Pitt the Elder, Britains prime minister,
  revived Britains cause
• He focused the British navy against the French
  and defeated the smaller, weaker French navy
• The British soon scored a series of land
  victories in the Great Lakes area and the Ohio
  River valley

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Seven Years War

• The French made peace, and the 1763 Treaty of
  Paris transferred Canada and all lands east of
  the Mississippi to Britain
• Spain, an ally of France, transferred Florida to
  British control, and France gave Spain its
  Louisiana territory
• By 1763, Britain was the worlds greatest
  colonial power

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Chapter 17, Section 4Colonial Empires and the
American Revolution
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Chapter 17, Section 4

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