Chapter 2 PSYCHOLOGICAL METHODS

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Chapter 2PSYCHOLOGICAL METHODS

• Section 1 Conducting Research
• Section 2 Surveys, Samples, and Populations
• Section 3 Methods of Observation
• Section 4 The Experimental Method
• Section 5 Ethical Issues

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Chapter 2 Section 1

• Conducting Research

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Section 1 Conducting Research

• STEPS IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
• Form a question (posing a question based on
  experience, psychological theory or common
  knowledge)
• Construct Cannot be seen or measured (EX
  anxiety)Therefore, research questions directed
  toward behavior.

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• 2. Form a hypothesis (making an educated guess).
  Worded in an If / Then statement.
• EX If I brush my teeth, then I can prevent
  cavities.
• 3. Test the hypothesis (examining the evidence
  through any of a variety of means)

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Section 1 Conducting Research

• 4. Analyze Results (looking for patterns or
  relationships in the evidence)you ask what
  findings mean.
• 5. Draw a conclusion (determining whether the
  findings support the hypothesis and adjusting it
  if they do not)

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Replication

• For the findings of a study to be confirmed, the
  study must be replicated ? the study must be
  repeated and it must produce the same results as
  before.

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The Sound of Crying- short clip

• Introduction The sound of a baby crying is
  among the MOST INTERESTING noises in the world.
  In this segment from 1981, researchers perform an
  experiment to find out whether the parents of a
  crying baby experience more stressful reaction
  to the noise than other people do.
• Describe the method and the outcome of the
  experiment performed in the video.

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Chapter 2 Section 2

• Surveys, Samples, and Populations

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The Survey Method

• Survey
• People are asked to respond to a series of
  questions about a particular subject.
• EX Interviews questionnaires
• Can lead to inaccurate answers.

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Populations and Samples

• Target population
• The whole group you want to study or describe.
• Researchers study a sample, which is only part of
  the target population.

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Selecting Samples

• Sample should be as similar as possible to the
  target population.
• Researchers use a random sample
• Individuals are selected by chance from the
  target population. (EX pulling names out of a
  hat)
• GOAL represent the whole population if large
  enough.

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Samples (continued)

• Stratified Sample
• Subgroups in the population are represented
  proportionally in the sample.
• EX Including specific ethnic groups/races
  within a sample.
• Surveying 2 groups ? Boys Girls

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Generalizing Results

• If impossible to obtain random or stratified
  sample, then must be cautious about generalizing
  findings to groups other than those from which
  samples were drawn.
• EX If researchers found that men prefer certain
  types of cars, the researchers could NOT conclude
  that women prefer those same types of cars if the
  study did not include women.

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Volunteer Bias

• Bias Predisposition to a certain point of view.
• Volunteer bias The concept that people who
  volunteer to participate in research studies
  often differ from those who do not volunteer.
• EX May be more willing to disclose personal
  information more interested in research

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Chapter 2 Section 3

• Methods of Observation

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Several Observational Methods

• 1. Testing Method
• 2. Case-Study Method
• 3. Longitudinal
• 4. Cross-Sectional Methods
• 5. Naturalistic-Observation Method
• 6. Laboratory-Observation Method

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1. The Testing Method

• Psychological tests to learn about human
  behavior.
• Intelligence tests
• Personality tests

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2. The Case-Study Method

• An in-depth investigation of an individual or a
  small group.
• EX Sigmund Freud interviewed patients for many
  years.

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Problems with Case Studies

• Not remembering details.
• Distort past to impress researcher
• Researchers may encourage client to answer in
  certain way.

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3. Longitudinal Methods

• LONGitudinal method
• Researchers select a group of participants and
  then observe those participates over a period of
  time, often years or even decades.
• EX studying improvement of language over time.
• Researchers must be VERY PATIENT!!

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• 4. Cross-Sectional Method
• A method of research that looks at different age
  groups at the same time in order to understand
  changes that occur during the life span. (less
  reliable than long. study)
• EX If studying languages, then will study the
  
• following age groups at the SAME
  time
• 12-months old 14 months-old 16
  months-old

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5. Naturalistic-Observation Method

• Also called field study
• The study of behavior in naturally occurring
  situations without manipulation or control on the
  part of the observer.
• EX Observing differences in eating habits in
  restaurant between obese and slender people.

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6. Laboratory-Observation Method

• The study of behavior in a controlled situation.
• Animals usually studies in this setting!

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Analyzing Observations

• Correlation
• A measure of how closely one thing is related to
  another.
• EX The taller you are, the more
• likely you can reach items on
• the top shelf.

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Positive and Negative Correlation

• Positive Correlation
• A relationship between variables in which one
  variable increases as the other variable also
  increases.
• EX People who have a higher need for
  achievement achieve higher salaries.

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• Negative Correlation
• An unpleasant stimulus between two variables in
  which one variable increases as the other
  variable decreases.
• EX The greater the stress, the poorer the
• health.

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Limits of Correlation

• Correlation DESCRIBES relationshipsit does NOT
  reveal CAUSE and EFFECT.

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Chapter 2 Section 4

• The Experimental Method

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The Experimental Method

• Experiment
• A controlled scientific procedure to determine
  whether certain variables manipulated by the
  researcher have an effect on other variables.

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Independent and Dependent Variables

• Variables
• Factors that are measured or controlled in a
  scientific study.
• Independent Variable
• Factor that researchers manipulate/change so that
  they can determine its effect.
• Dependent Variable
• Factor that is being measured and that may change
  in response to manipulations of the independent
  variable.

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EXAMPLES

• Can warm temperatures cause aggression in humans?
• Independent variable Temperature
• Dependent variable Level of aggression

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Experimental and Control Groups

• Experimental groups
• The participants who receive the treatment.
• Control group
• The group that does not receive the treatment.
• Controlled Experiment Includes both
  experimental AND control groups.

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Examples

• Do extracurricular activities make a difference
  in grades???
• All factorssuch as educational backgroundwould
  be the same for all members.
• Experimental group Be involved in activities.
• Controlled group NOT involved in activities

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Would it be possible to conduct a controlled
experiment??

• Do people who undergo therapy feel better, or
  feel better faster, than people who do not?

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The Placebo Effect

• Placebo
• A substance or treatment that has NO effect apart
  from a persons belief in it.
• EX Sugar pill

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Single-Blind Studies

• Participants do not know whether they are in the
  experimental group or the control group.

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Double-Blind Studies

• An experiment in which neither the participant
  nor the researcher knows whether the participant
  has received the treatment or the placebo.
• EX Food and Drug Administration

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Chapter 2 Section 5

• Ethical Issues

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What is Ethics???

• Ethics Standards for proper and responsible
  behavior.
• Specific guidelines by APA
• American Psychological Association

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Research with People

• Confidentiality
• Records kept private!
• Informed Consent
• People agree, or consent, to participate in a
  research study only after they have been given a
  general overview of the research and have been
  given the choice of whether or not to participate.

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Deception

• When is it OK to deceive the subject???
• When they believe that the benefits of the
  research outweigh its potential harm.
• When they believe that the individuals would have
  been willing to participate if they had
  understood the benefits of the research.
• When participants receive an explanation of the
  study after it has occurred.

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Research with Animals

• Psychologists use animals only when there is no
  alternative and when they believe that the
  potential benefits outweigh the harm.
• Most animals are NOT harmed!

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Is Harming Animals Ethical???

• Rely on animals to avoid harming humans.
• EX Brain research separation
• of children (monkeys)
• mental disorders visual and
• memory defects high blood
• pressure etc.

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Is it Ethical to Harm Animals for the Purpose of
Helping Humans???
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Ethics in Using Data

• Must present ALL evidence
• Even if it contradicts the hypothesis.
• EX Side effects of medicine!

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OVERVIEW OF ETHICAL ISSUES AND RESEARCH
Section 5 Ethical Issues

• Protect study participants from harm
• Maintain the scientific integrity of the study
• Promote the dignity of the individual
• Foster human welfare
• Confidentiality
• Informed Consent

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Philip Zimbardos Prison Experiment
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Zimbardos Overall Experiment

• In 1971, psychologist Philip Zimbardo and his
  colleagues set out to create an experiment that
  looked at the impact of becoming a prisoner or
  prison guard. Zimbardo, a former classmate of
  Stanley Milgram (who is best-known for his famous
  obedience experiment, was interested in expanding
  upon Milgram's research. He wanted to further
  investigate the impact of situational variables
  on human behavior.
• The question the researchers asked was how would
  the participants react when placed in a simulated
  prison environment. "Suppose you had only kids
  who were normally healthy, psychologically and
  physically, and they knew they would be going
  into a prison-like environment and that some of
  their civil rights would be sacrificed. Would
  those good people, put in that bad, evil
  placewould their goodness triumph?" Zimbardo
  explained in one interview.