Module 8

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Module 8

• Hypnosis

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HYPNOSIS

• Hypnosis definition
• procedure in which a researcher, clinician, or
  hypnotists suggests that a person will experience
  changes in sensation, perceptions, thoughts,
  feelings, or behaviors
• Who can be hypnotized?
• not correlated with introversion, extraversion,
  social position, intelligence, willpower, sex,
  compliance, gullibility, being highly motivated,
  or being a placebo responder

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HYPNOSIS (CONT.)

• Who is susceptible?
• individuals with the remarkable ability to
  respond to imaginative suggestions
• best known test Stanford Hypnotic
  Susceptibility Scale
• asks individuals to carry out a series of both
  simple and complex suggestions
• high scorers are usually easily hypnotized

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HYPNOSIS (CONT.)

• How is someone hypnotized?
• hypnotic induction
• refers to inducing hypnosis by first asking a
  person to either stare at an object or close his
  or her eyes and then suggesting that the person
  is becoming very relaxed

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HYPNOSIS (CONT.)

• Theories of hypnosis
• Altered States Theory of Hypnosis
• holds that hypnosis puts a person into an altered
  state of consciousness, during which the person
  is disconnected from reality, which results in
  being able to experience and respond to various
  suggestions
• Sociocognitive Theory of hypnosis
• behaviors observed during hypnosis result not
  from being hypnotized, but rather from having the
  special ability of responding to imaginative
  suggestions and social pressures

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HYPNOSIS (CONT.)

• Behaviors
• Hypnotic analgesia
• refers to a reduction in pain reported by clients
  after they had undergone hypnosis and received
  suggestions that reduced their anxiety and
  promoted relaxation
• Posthypnotic suggestion
• given to the subject during hypnosis about
  performing a particular behavior to a specific
  cue when the subject comes out of hypnosis

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HYPNOSIS (CONT.)

• Behaviors
• Posthypnotic amnesia
• not remembering what happened during hypnosis if
  the hypnotist suggested that, upon awakening, the
  person would forget what took place during
  hypnosis
• Age regression
• refers to subjects under hypnosis being asked to
  regress, or return in time, to an earlier age,
  such as early childhood
• Imagined perception
• refers to experiencing sensations, perceiving
  stimuli, or performing behaviors that come from
  ones imagination

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HYPNOSIS (CONT.)

• Medical and therapeutic applications
• Medical and dental use
• used to reduce pain through hypnotic analgesia,
  to reduce fear and anxiety by helping individuals
  relax, or to help patients deal with a terminal
  disease by motivating them to make the best of a
  difficult situation
• Therapeutic and behavioral uses
• useful in helping clients reveal their
  personalities, gain insights into their lives,
  and arrive at solutions to their problems

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DRUGS OVERVIEW

• Reasons for use
• include obtaining pleasure, joy, and euphoria
  meeting social expectations giving in to peer
  pressure dealing with or escaping stress,
  anxiety, and tension avoiding pain and
  achieving altered state of consciousness
• Psychoactive drugs
• affect nervous system
• may alter consciousness and awareness, influence
  how we sense and perceive things, and modify our
  moods, feelings, emotions, and thoughts

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DRUGS OVERVIEW (CONT.)

• Definition of terms
• Addiction
• a person has developed a behavioral pattern of
  drug abuse that is marked by an overwhelming and
  compulsive desire to obtain and use the drug
  even after stopping, the person has a strong
  tendency to relapse and begin using the drug
  again
• Tolerance
• after a person uses a drug repeatedly over a
  period of time, the original dose of the drug no
  longer produces the desired effect so that a
  person must take increasingly larger doses of the
  drug to achieve the same behavioral effect

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DRUGS OVERVIEW (CONT.)

• Definition of terms
• Dependency
• refers to a change in the nervous system so that
  a person now needs to take the drug to prevent
  the occurrence of painful withdrawal symptoms
• Withdrawal symptoms
• painful physical and psychological symptoms that
  occur after a drug-dependent person stops using
  the drug

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DRUGS OVERVIEW (CONT.)

• Use of drugs

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DRUGS OVERVIEW (CONT.)

• Effects on nervous system
• drugs affect neurotransmitters
• Neurotransmitters
• chemical keys that search for and then either
  open or close chemical locks to either excite or
  inhibit neighboring neurons, organs, or muscles
• Mimicking
• some drugs produce their effects by mimicking the
  way the neurotransmitters work
• Reuptake
• some drugs block reuptake

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DRUGS OVERVIEW (CONT.)

• Effects on nervous system
• drugs affect brains reward/pleasure center
• includes the nucleus accumbens and ventral
  tegmental area and involves dopamine
• some drugs directly activate the brains
  reward/pleasure center
• also activated when one eats food, has sex, and
  does other pleasurable activities

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STIMULANTS

• Definition
• stimulants, including cocaine, amphetamines,
  caffeine, and nicotine, increase activity of the
  central nervous system and result in heightened
  alertness, arousal, euphoria, and decreased
  appetite and fatigue
• Amphetamines
• 1960s heavily prescribed to treat a wide range
  of problems, including fatigue, depression, and
  being overweight
• 1971 FDA outlawed the prescription of
  amphetamines for everything except
  attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and
  narcolepsy

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STIMULANTS (CONT.)

• Amphetamines
• 1980s drug war on cocaine
• dramatic increase in using a form of amphetamine
  called methamphetamine
• in many countries, possession or use of
  methamphetamine is illegal

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STIMULANTS (CONT.)

• Amphetamines
• drug
• Methamphetamine (D-methamphetamine)
• close to amphetamine in both chemical makeup and
  its physical and psychological effects
• can be smoked, or snorted
• produces almost instant high
• causes marked increase in blood pressure and
  heart rate
• produces feelings of enhanced mood, alertness,
  and energy

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STIMULANTS (CONT.)

• Amphetamines
• nervous system
• increases the release of dopamine and also blocks
  reuptake
• Dangers
• periods of restless activity and performing
  repetitive behaviors
• later, euphoria is replaced with depression,
  agitation insomnia, and development of true
  paranoid feelings

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STIMULANTS (CONT.)

• Cocaine
• drug
• from coca leaves
• cocaine can be sniffed or snorted
• absorbed by many of the bodys membranes
• concentrated cocaine is called crack
• effects are very similar to amphetamines
• higher doses can produce anxiety, emotional
  instability, and suspiciousness

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STIMULANTS (CONT.)

• Cocaine
• nervous system
• blocks reuptake of dopamine
• excites dopamine receptors to produce
  pleasure/euphoria and glutamate to produce
  cravings for more drug
• increased physiological and psychological arousal
• can be used for a local anesthetic when applied
  to external areas of the body

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STIMULANTS (CONT.)

• Cocaine
• Dangers
• moderate doses
• Short acting high (10-30 minutes) includes
  bursts of energy, arousal, and alertness
• Heavy doses
• results in serious physical and psychological
  problems, which may include hallucinations and
  feelings of bugs crawling under the skin as well
  as addiction

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STIMULANTS (CONT.)

• Caffeine
• drug
• mild stimulant, produces moderate physiological
  and psychological arousal, including decreased
  fatigue and drowsiness, feelings of alertness and
  improved reaction times
• Nervous system
• caffeine belongs to the chemical class called
  xanthines
• blocks certain receptors (adenosine receptors) in
  the brain
• mild physiological and psychological arousal

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STIMULANTS (CONT.)

• Caffeine
• Dangers
• mild to heavy doses of caffeine can result in
  addiction and dependency similar to those
  produced by alcohol, nicotine, and cocaine (two
  cups of coffee)
• higher doses result in depression, tension, and
  anxiety

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STIMULANTS (CONT.)

• Nicotine
• drug
• stimulant that triggers the brains
  reward/pleasure center to produce good feelings
• low doses improve attention, concentration, and
  short term memory
• regular use causes addiction and dependency
• leads to withdrawal

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STIMULANTS (CONT.)

• Nicotine
• nervous system
• stimulates the production of dopamine
• also stops other controlling cells from turning
  off the pleasure areas
• Dangers
• very addicting
• causes sexual problems including impotency
• withdrawal symptoms range in severity and include
  nervousness, irritability, difficulty in
  concentrating, sleep disturbances, and strong
  craving

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OPIATES

• Opium, morphine, heroin
• opiates are classified as narcotics
• drug
• opiates such as opium, morphine, and heroin
  produce three primary effects
• analgesia (pain reduction)
• opiate euphoria (state between waking and
  sleeping)
• constipation

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OPIATES (CONT.)

• Opium, morphine, heroin
• nervous system
• brain has naturally occurring receptors for
  opiates
• produces feelings of euphoria and analgesia
• gastrointestinal tract has opiate receptors
  (constipation)
• brain also produces morphinelike chemicals called
  endorphins

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OPIATES (CONT.)

• Opium, morphine, heroin
• Dangers
• brain will produce less of its own endorphins
• relies on outside opiates
• person becomes addicted
• withdrawal symptoms, include hot and cold
  flashes, sweating, muscle tremors, and stomach
  cramps
• overdose results in depressed neural control for
  breathing and death from respiratory failure

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HALLUCINOGENS

• Definition
• Hallucinogens are psychoactive drugs that can
  produce strange and unusual perceptual, sensory,
  and cognitive experiences, which the person sees
  or hears but knows are not occurring in reality.
• LSD
• d-lysergic acid diethylamide
• drug
• produces hallucinogenic experiences at very low
  doses
• visual hallucinations, perceptual distortions,
  increased sensory awareness, and intense
  psychological feelings

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HALLUCINOGENS (CONT.)

• LSD
• nervous system
• resembles serotonin
• LSD binds to receptors that normally respond to
  serotonin, and the net effect is increased
  stimulation of the these neurons
• receptors are mainly located on neurons in the
  cerebral cortex
• involved in receiving sensations, creating
  perceptions, thinking, and imagining

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HALLUCINOGENS (CONT.)

• LSD
• Dangers
• psychological effects partially depend on the
  setting and the persons state of mind
• if a person is tense or anxious or in an
  unfamiliar setting, he or she may experience a
  bad trip
• severe trips may lead to psychotic reactions
  (especially paranoid feelings) that require
  hospitalization
• users may experience flashbacks (after the
  experience)
• occur for no apparent reason

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HALLUCINOGENS (CONT.)

• Psilocybin
• magic mushrooms (Psilocybe mexicana)
• possession or use of psilocybn is illegal
• drug
• psilocybin in low doses produces pleasant and
  relaxed feelings
• medium doses produce perceptual distortions in
  time and space
• high doses produce distortions in perceptions and
  body image and sometimes hallucinations

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HALLUCINOGENS (CONT.)

• Psilocybin
• nervous system
• chemically related to LSD
• inhibits serotonin receptors
• hallucinatory effects last half as long as LSD

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HALLUCINOGENS (CONT.)

• Psilocybin
• Dangers
• not physical harm to the brain or body
• potential for inducing psychotic states that may
  persist long after the experience is expected to
  end
• accidental poisonings are common from eating
  poisonous mushrooms, mistaking them for magic
  mushrooms

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HALLUCINOGENS (CONT.)

• Mescaline
• peyote cactus
• contains about 30 psychoactive chemicals
• most potent is mescaline
• possession of mescaline is illegal for all except
  those who belong to the Native American Church
• drug
• 2,000 times less potent than LSD
• high doses produce very clear and vivid visual
  hallucinations
• does not impair the intellect or cloud
  consciousness

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HALLUCINOGENS (CONT.)

• Mescaline
• nervous system
• reaches maximum concentration in the brain about
  30-120 minutes after someone eats buttons of
  peyote cactus
• increases the activity of neurotransmitters
  norepinephrine and dopamine
• activates the sympathetic nervous system
• produces physiological arousal increased heart
  rate, temperature, and sometimes vomiting

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HALLUCINOGENS (CONT.)

• Mescaline
• Dangers
• can last 6-8 hours
• Users may experience headaches and vomiting

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HALLUCINOGENS (CONT.)

• Designer drugs
• manufactured or synthetic drugs that are designed
  to resemble already existing illegal psychoactive
  drugs and produce or mimic their psychoactive
  effects
• drug
• MDMA, ecstasy
• resembles both mescaline and amphetamine
• heightens sensations, gives a euphoric rush,
  raises body temperature, and creates feelings of
  warmth and empathy

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HALLUCINOGENS (CONT.)

• Designer drugs
• MDMA
• nervous system
• causes large amounts of dopamine and serotonin to
  be released
• afterward users may feel depressed and have
  attention memory deficits
• MDMA may cause brain damage

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HALLUCINOGENS (CONT.)

• Designer drugs
• MDMA
• Dangers
• recreational trips can last 6 hours
• include euphoria, high energy, jaw clenching,
  teeth grinding, increased body temperature, and
  insomnia
• higher doses include panic, rapid heart beat,
  high body temperature, paranoia, and
  psychotic-like symptoms

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ALCOHOL

• History and use
• first brewery appeared in Egypt in about 3700
  B.C.
• safe alcohol to drink is ethyl alcohol
• level of alcohol is measured in percentage in the
  blood blood alcohol content or BAC
• national legal definition of being drunk is 0.08
  (after possibly 3-4 drinks)
• effects the nervous system and results in
  behavioral and emotional changes

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ALCOHOL (CONT.)

• drug
• ethyl alcohol is a psychoactive drug classified
  as a depressant
• depresses activity of the central nervous system
• alcohol seems like a stimulant but later
  depresses physiological and psychological
  responses

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ALCOHOL (CONT.)

• Nervous system
• affects many parts of the nervous system
• stimulates GABA neural receptors, leads to
  feeling less anxious and less inhibited
• also impairs the anterior cingulate cortex,
  monitors the control of motor actions
• drinkers fail to recognize their impaired motor
  performance (driving)
• high doses depresses vital breathing reflexes
  in the medulla (brain stem)
• may lead to death

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ALCOHOL (CONT.)

• Dangers
• hangover
• includes upset stomach, dizziness, fatigue,
  headache, and depression
• repeated and heavy drinking can result in
  tolerance, addiction, and dependency
• withdrawal symptoms
• shaking, nausea, anxiety, diarrhea,
  hallucinations, and disorientation
• another serious problem, blackout
• occur after heavy and repeated drinking

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ALCOHOL (CONT.)

• Dangers (cont.)
• blackouts
• person seems to behave normally but does not
  remember what happened when sober
• repeated and heavy drinking can also result in
  liver damage, alcoholism, and brain damage

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ALCOHOL (CONT.)

• Risk factors
• of 109 million people who drink alcohol, 10 to 14
  million will develop alcoholism
• psychological risk factors
• children of either one or both alcoholic parents
  can develop unusual, abnormal, or maladaptive
  psychological and emotional traits

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ALCOHOL (CONT.)

• Risk factors
• genetic risk factors
• refer to inherited biases for predispositions
  that increase the potential for alcoholism
• genetic factors contribute 50 to 60 to the
  reasons a person becomes an alcoholic

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MARIJUANA

• Use and effects
• Most widely used illegal drug
• medical marijuana
• can be effective in treating nausea and vomiting
  associated with chemotherapy, appetite loss in
  AIDS patients, eye disease (glaucoma), muscle
  spasticity in patients with multiple sclerosis,
  and some forms of pain
• gateway effect
• says that using marijuana leads young people to
  try harder drugs

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MARIJUANA (CONT.)

• drug
• psychoactive drug whose primary active ingredient
  is THC (tetrahydrocannabinol)
• found in leaves of the cannabis plant
• THC is rapidly absorbed by the lungs (while
  smoking)
• 5-10 minutes produces a hit that lasts for
  several hours
• depending on the users state of mind, marijuana
  can either heighten or distort pleasant or
  unpleasant experiences, moods, or feelings

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MARIJUANA (CONT.)

• nervous system
• THC receptors are located throughout the brain,
  including the hippocampus, cerebral cortex,
  limbic system, cerebellum, and basal ganglia
• the brain itself makes a chemical similar to THC
• anandamide
• currently under study

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MARIJUANA (CONT.)

• Dangers
• can cause temporary changes in cognitive
  functioning
• can temporarily decrease secretion of various
  hormones and effectiveness of the immune system
• respiratory problems like bronchitis and asthma
• high doses may cause toxic psychoses, including
  delusions, paranoia, and feelings of terror