Cold War

1
Cold War Recovery

• 1945-1968

2
Roots of Cold War

• Teheran Conference, 1943 USSR guaranteed to be
  only power to liberate Eastern Europe
• Yalta Conference, 1945
• Stalin pledged to allow democratic elections in
  E. Europe (but later reneged)
• Germany would be divided into four zones
  controlled by U.S., France, Britain and USSR
• After war, Soviets dominated their zone and did
  not allow reunification of Germany
• Potsdam Conference, 1945
• Truman demanded free elections in Eastern Europe
  but Stalin refused
• Stalin wanted a "buffer zone" between Germany and
  USSR for protection against future war

3
Roots of Cold War

• U.S. point of view
• Stalin seemed intent on creating "spheres" of
  influence in Eastern Europe
• Broke pledges at Yalta refused to allow
  reunification of Germany
• Churchill's "Iron Curtain" speech in 1946 alerted
  Americans to a future conflict
• U.S. wanted democracy spread throughout the world
  with a strong international organization to
  maintain global peace

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Roots of Cold War

• Soviet point of view
• Democracies traditionally hostile towards
  communism and the USSR
• Ex non-recognition by U.S. until 1933
• US Britain did not open western front in Europe
  early enough millions of Soviet soldiers were
  dying fighting the brunt of Nazi armies alone
  until mid-1944.
• The US and Britain froze Russia out of the atomic
  bomb project.
• US terminated lend-lease to Moscow in May 1945
  but gave Britain aid until 1946.
• Wanted "buffer zone" for the Soviet western
  border esp. in Poland

6
Partition of Germany

• USSR, U.S., Britain France would each occupy a
  part of Germany but would allow for German
  reunification once she was no longer a threat.
• Germany was to pay heavy reparations to USSR in
  form of agricultural and industrial goods.
• Soviets dominated their Eastern German zone
• Did not want revitalized Germany that could once
  again pose a threat.
• Stripped E. Germany of much of its resources.

7
Partition of Germany

• U.S. and W. Europeans felt German economy vital
  to recovery of Europe
• 1949, West Germany became an independent country
  when US, France and Britain gave back each of
  their zones
• Federal Republic of Germany led by Konrad
  Adenauer
• 1949, East Germany formally established
  Democratic Republic of Germany led by Walter
  Ulbricht (1883-1973) communist regime influenced
  by Moscow

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"Containment"

• By 1947, US pledged to prevent further spread of
  communism
• Truman Doctrine, 1947 U.S. gave aid to Greece
  and Turkey to defeat communist forces there.

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Marshall Plan

• 1947 Massive aid package to help war-torn Europe
  recover from the war
• Purpose prevent communism from spreading into
  economically devastated regions
• Result Western and Central Europe recovered
  economically -- the "economic miracle"
• Soviets refused to allow U.S. aid to countries in
  eastern Europe

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Berlin Crisis (1948-49)

• Soviets attempted to remove Allies from Berlin by
  cutting off access of goods to Germans in the
  Allied-controlled section
• One of high tension points of the Cold War World
  War III?
• U.S. instituted a massive airlift Soviets lifted
  blockade in 1949 (Berlin Airlift)

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More Containment

• North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) formed
  in 1949
• Collective security organization consisting of
  democracies in Europe, U.S. Canada to prevent
  against Soviet expansion in Europe.
• Radio Free Europe Voice of America set up to
  send pro-democracy messages to countries behind
  the "iron curtain"

16
Eastern Bloc

• Countries in Eastern Europe dominated by Soviet
  Union after WWII
• Included Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, East
  Germany, Rumania, Bulgaria
• Communist parties of eastern Europe established
  one-party states by 1948, with help of Red Army
  and KGB (Soviet secret police)
• Only Yugoslavia, led by Marshal Tito, is not
  dominated by Soviets
• Postwar economic recovery in eastern Europe
  proceeded along Soviet lines.
• Changes went forward at slow uneven pace came
  to almost a halt by the mid-1960s.
• Five-year plans in USSR reintroduced to tackle
  massive economic reconstruction

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Eastern Bloc

• Stalin reinstitutes oppressive rule
• Great Patriotic War of the Fatherland had
  fostered Russian nationalism and a relaxation of
  dictatorial terror.
• Stalins new foe, the U.S., provided an excuse
  for re-establishing harsh dictatorship.
• After war, Stalin repressed millions of Soviet
  citizens living outside Soviet borders when the
  war ended.
• Stalin revived many forced labor camp, which had
  accounted for roughly 1/6 of all new construction
  in Soviet Union before the war
• Culture and art were also purged

18
Czechoslovakia

• Czechoslovakia the economic exception in E.
  Europe industrialized, strong middle class and
  industrial working class and experience of
  political democracy between the wars.
• During dualist period", President Benes and
  Foreign minister Jan Masaryk proposed to govern a
  social democracy while maintaining close
  voluntary relations with the USSR.
• In response to Marshall Plan in 1947, Stalin
  replaced govt in 1948 with 1-party communist
  rule to prevent nation from courting the West.

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USSR under Nikita Khrushchev (1894-1971)
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Khrushchev

• Power struggle emerged after Stalin died in 1953
  Khrushchev emerged a few years later
• Stalins heirs realized reforms were needed.
• Widespread fear and hatred of Stalins political
  terror resulted in reduction of power of secret
  police and gradual closure of forced labor camps.
• Agriculture in bad shape.
• Shortages of consumer goods.
• Hard work and initiative in decline due to poor
  living conditions.

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De-Stalinization

• XXth Party Congress, 1956 Khrushchev took
  startling initiative against hard-liners by
  denouncing Stalins crimes in a closed session.
• Secret anti-Stalin speech probably most
  influential statement in Russia since Lenin
  addressed the crowd on arriving in April 1917.
• Gosplan Resources shifted from heavy industry
  and the military toward consumer goods and
  agriculture Centralized Economic Planning

22
De-Stalinization

• Great ferment in the arts (anti-Stalinist views
  tolerated)
• Boris Pasternak (1890-1960) wrote Dr. Zhivago in
  1956.
• Story of prerevolutionary intellectual who
  rejects brutality of revolution of 1917
  Stalinism even as he is destroyed, he triumphs
  from his humanity and Christian spirit.
• Aleksandr Solzenitsyn One Day in the Life of
  Ivan Denisovich (1962)
• Portrays in grim detail life in Stalinist
  concentration camp (he had been a prisoner)

23
De-Stalinization

• De-Stalinization resulted in communist reformers
  and the masses seeking greater liberty and
  national independence.
• Poland March 1956, riots resulted in release of
  more than 9000 political prisoners, including
  previously purged leader Wladyslaw Gomulka.
• Gomulka skillfully managed to win greater
  autonomy for Poland while keeping anti-Soviet
  feeling at bay.

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Hungarian Uprising 1956

• Students and workers in Budapest installed a
  liberal Communist reformer, Imre Nagy as new
  chief in October 1956.
• Hungarian nationalists staged huge demonstrations
  demanding non-communist parties be legalized
  turned into armed rebellion and spread throughout
  the country.
• Hoped U.S. would come in and help achieve
  Hungarian independence

25
Hungarian Uprising 1956

• Soviet tanks and troops responded by invading
  Hungary and crushing the national democratic
  revolution.
• János Kádár installed firm communist rule
• After Hungarian invasion, most eastern Europeans
  hoped for small domestic gains while obediently
  following USSR in foreign affairs.

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Post-War Political and Economic Framework

• Bretton Woods Conference (1944) created
  International Monetary Fund (IMF)
• Lay foundations for modern monetary system based
  on U.S. dollar
• IMF (World Bank) designed to loan money to
  struggling countries to prevent economic crises
  and anarchy instrumental in post-war economic
  boom.
• United Nations created in 1945 Security Council
  (12 nations including 5 permanent members had
  powers to act General Assembly had powers to
  advise (included all nations of the world)

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Western Europe Political Recovery

• Economic hardship after WWII scarcity of food,
  runaway inflation, black markets
• Many people believed Europe was finished.
• Suffering was worst in Germany

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Western Europe Political Recovery

• Political restructuring
• Christian Democrats inspired by common Christian
  and European heritage.
• Rejected authoritarianism narrow nationalism
  had faith in democracy and cooperation.
• Catholic parties also progressive in nature
• Socialists and Communists also emerged with
  increased power and prestige, especially in
  France and Italy.
• Pushed for social change and economic reform with
  considerable success.
• Result social reform and political
  transformation created foundations for a great
  European renaissance.

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Western Europe Political Recovery - Italy

• Christian Democrats gained control in 1946 led
  by Alcide De Gasperi
• Socialist influence social benefits came to
  equal a large part of the average workers wages

30
Western Europe Political Recovery - France

• General Charles De Gaulle, inspiring wartime
  leader of Free French, re-established free and
  democratic Fourth Republic (resigned in 1949)
• Catholic party provided some of best postwar
  leaders e.g. Robert Schuman
• Socialist influence large banks, insurance
  companies, public utilities, coal mines, and the
  Renault auto company were nationalized by govt.
• Britain followed same trend

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Western Europe Political Recovery - West Germany

• 1949, Konrad Adenauer began long, highly
  successful democratic rule.
• Christian Democrats became West Germanys
  majority party for a generation

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Western Europe Political Recovery Great Britain

• Clement Attlee, socialist Labour party leader,
  defeated Winston Churchill and the Conservatives
  in 1945.
• Attlee moved toward establishment of a welfare
  state.
• Many industries nationalized, govt provided each
  citizen with free medical service and taxed the
  middle and upper classes more heavily.

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Economic Miracle

• Unprecedented economic growth in European history
• Europe entered period of rapid economic progress
  lasting into late 1960s.
• By 1963, western Europe produced more than 2.5X
  more than before the war.

34
Economic Miracle

• Causes
• Marshall Plan aid helped western Europe begin
  recovery in 1947
• Korean War in 1950 stimulated economic activity.
• Economic growth became a basic objective of all
  western European governments.
• Governments accepted Keynesian economics to
  stimulate their economies.
• Germany and France were especially successful and
  influential.
• In most countries many people willing to work
  hard for low wages expanding industries
  benefited.
• Increased demand for consumer goods.
• Many economic barriers eliminated and a large
  unified market emerged Common Market.

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Economic Miracle

• German economic recovery led by finance minister
  Ludwig Erhard
• Combined free-market economy extensive social
  welfare network inherited from Nazi era.
• By late 1950s, West Germany had robust economy,
  full employment, a strong currency and stable
  prices.

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Economic Miracle

• France
• Combined flexible planning and a mixed state
  and private economy to achieve most rapid
  economic development in its history.
• Jean Monnet economic pragmatist and architect of
  European unity.
• France used Marshall Plan aid money and the
  nationalized banks to funnel money into key
  industries, several of which were state owned.

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European Unity
38
Council of Europe Created in 1948

• European federalists hoped Council would quickly
  evolve into a true European parliament with
  sovereign rights, but this did not happen.
• Britain, with its empire and its special
  relationship with U.S., opposed giving any real
  political powersovereigntyto the council.

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Schuman Plan

• 1950 created the European Coal and Steel
  Community
• Put forth by French statesman Jean Monnet and
  Foreign Minister Robert Schuman.
• Special international organization to control
  integrate European steel and coal production.
• West Germany, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands,
  Luxembourg accepted in 1952 Britain refused to
  enter
• Immediate economic goal a single competitive
  market w/o national tariffs or quotas.
• "The Six" By 1958 coal and steel moved freely
  among six nations of the European Coal and Steel
  Community
• Far-reaching political goal bind six member
  nations so closely together economically that war
  among them would become unthinkable and virtually
  impossible.

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European Economic Community (EEC)

• Treaty of Rome, 1957
• Created European Economic Community (EEC) or the
  Common Market
• Signed by same six nations in the Schuman Plan
  the Six
• First goal of treaty Gradual reduction of all
  tariffs among the Six in order to create a single
  market almost as large as the U.S.
• Other goals
• Free movement of capital and labor.
• Common economic policies and institutions.
• Tariffs were rapidly reduced and regions
  specialized in what they did best.

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European Economic Community (EEC)

• EEC encouraged hopes of political and economic
  union.
• Union frustrated in 1960s by resurgence of more
  traditional nationalism.
• Euratom (European Atomic Energy Agency) also
  created by agency.
• Communist states responded by forming their own
  economic association--COMECON

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France Steps Back from European Unity

• Bitter colonial war in Algeria resulted in the
  election in 1958 of General De Gaulle who
  established the Fifth French Republic and ruled
  as president until 1969.
• Withdrew France from "US controlled" NATO and
  developed own nuclear weapons program.
• De Gaulle twice vetoed application of
  pro-American British to European Union.
• Britain did not inter until 1973.

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Cold War in the 1950s
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Events

• 1949, Communists in China led by Mao Zedong win
  Chinese revolution
• Establish "Peoples Republic of China" ("Red
  China")
• 1949, Soviets successfully test atomic bomb

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Korean War 1950-1953

• After WWII, Korea divided at 38th parallel North
  was communist, South was not
• Cause 1950, North Korea invaded South Korea
  (supported by Soviet resources)
• UN (led by US Gen. Douglas MacArthur) sent
  forces to push back communists
• Soviets boycotting UN for U.S. refusal to allow
  "Red China" into UN Security Council
• China sends hundreds of thousands of troops to
  push back UN
• Result cease-fire and border at 38th parallel
  restored still in existence today

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Korean War
47
Hydrogen Bomb

• Developed by US in 1952 USSR in 1953 world now
  has two superpowers

48
Warsaw Pact 1955

• Collective security organization of eastern bloc
  nations to counter NATO.
• U.S. policy of "massive retaliation" between
  1953-55
• U.S. policy now is to help eastern European
  countries remove communism.
• U.S. vows to destroy USSR with nuclear weapons if
  it tries to expand
• Brinksmanship the art of going to the brink of
  war to force the other side t back down.

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Relations b/n USSR U.S. Improve w/ Ascension to
power of Nikita Khrushchev

• Seeks peaceful coexistence with the West in
  order to focus on Soviet economy
• Austrian Independence USSR agreed in 1955 to
  real independence for a neutral Austria after 10
  years of Allied occupation.
• Resulted in significant reduction in cold war
  tensions between 1955 1957.

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Relations b/n USSR U.S. Improve w/ Ascension to
power of Nikita Khrushchev

• Krushchev sought to prove communism was superior
  to capitalism and the USSR would be the model
  communist state in the world "we will bury you.
• Krushchev began wooing new nations of Asia and
  Africa with promises and aid, even if they were
  not communist.
• Geneva Summit -- 1955 (July)
• US meets with USSR, Britain, France to begin
  discussions on European security and disarmament
  no agreements made
• 1958, relations sour with Khrushchev's ultimatum
  for Allies to leave Berlin 6 month deadline
  passes without incident, extended indefinitely

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Cold War in 1960s
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U-2 Incident

• U.S. spy plane shot down over USSR
• Khrushchev demanded an apology from Eisenhower
  Eisenhower refused
• Khrushchev and Eisenhower aborted

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Berlin Wall Built in 1961

• 2 million East Germans escaped to West Berlin
  between 1949-1961 Soviets frustrated
• Khrushchev threatened President Kennedy USSR
  would sign peace treaty with East Germany who
  would then control access to Berlin Soviets
  would protect East Germanys right to control
  flow into Berlin.
• Berlin Wall built instead of enforcing ultimatum
  to U.S. ended future crises over Berlin

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Berlin Wall
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Cuba

• Became a communist country in 1959 under
  leadership of Fidel Castro
• Cuba became an ally of the Soviet Union
• Bay of Pigs Invasion, 1961 U.S.-trained Cuban
  exiles tried unsuccessfully to invade Cuba

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Cuban Missile Crisis

• 1962 U.S. demanded Soviets remove their newly
  installed nuclear missiles from Cuba.
• Crisis became the closest USSR and US came to
  nuclear war
• U.S. placed blockade (naval quarantine) on any
  further missiles into Cuba
• Khrushchev agreed to remove missiles in return
  for U.S. removing its missiles from Turkey and
  vowing not to invade Cuba in the future.
• Crisis weakened Khrushchev and contributed to his
  downfall in 1964

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Cuban Missile Crisis
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Nuclear Test Ban Treaty 1963

• Khrushchev, Kennedy Britain signed historic
  treaty banning atmospheric testing in an attempt
  to reduce Cold War tensions
• France refused to sign (was in the process of
  developing own nuclear weapons program)
• China became a nuclear power in 1964 leading to
  its estrangement with Soviet Union

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Fall of Khrushchev 1964

• His cold war foreign policies erratic
  ultimately unsuccessful (Berlin, Cuban Missile
  Crisis)
• Expensive space and armaments programs postponed
  any significant shift to consumer goods.
• Most important reason agricultural projects
  backfired
• Resurgence of conservative Stalinists led to
  quiet removal of Khrushchev in October, 1964

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Leonid Brezhnev

• Became new General Secretary (1964-1982)
• Beginning in 1964, USSR began a period of
  stagnation and limited re-Stalinization
• Massive arms buildup started in response to
  humiliation of Cuban Missile Crisis.

• USSR avoided direct confrontation with the U.S.
  and seemed more committed to peaceful coexistence
  than Khrushchev had been.

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Vietnam War (1964-1973)

• U.S. fought unsuccessful war in Southeast Asia to
  prevent communism from spreading into South
  Vietnam.
• Domino Theory U.S. believed if Vietnam fell
  to communism, Laos, Cambodia and Thailand would
  also fall (perhaps even India) (1964-1973)

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SOCIETY AFTER WORLD WAR II
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Science and Technology

• For first time in history, pure theoretical
  science and practical technology (applied
  science) effectively joined together on massive
  scale during WWII.
• British scientists developed radar to detect
  enemy aircraft.
• Jet aircraft developed by Germany
• Electronic computers further developed had
  barely come into existence before 1939.
• Manhattan Project Atomic bomb most spectacular
  result of scientific research during the war
  project overseen by J. Robert Oppenheimer

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Science and Technology

• Big Science became new model for science after
  WWII
• Combined theoretical work with sophisticated
  engineering in a large, often huge organization.
• U.S. emerged as leader in Big Science after WWII
• Science not demobilized after WWII either in U.S.
  or USSR
• Large portion of all postwar scientific research
  went for defense (25!)

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Space Race

• (Part of Cold War competition to achieve
  technological superiority)
• 1957, USSR launched Sputnik, an orbiting
  satellite using long-range rockets
• US fearful Soviets could now launch a nuclear
  missile into space and then down to U.S.
• Resulted in development of ICBMs
  (Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles)

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Space Race

• U.S. countered with creation of NASA and vastly
  increased educational funding for science.
• 1961, Soviets sent worlds first cosmonaut, Yuri
  Gagarin, into orbit.
• President John F. Kennedy responded by increasing
  funds for space.
• 1969, Apollo Program put first man on the moon 4
  more moon landings followed by 1972.

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Brain Drain

• U.S. attracted many of Europes best scientists
  during 1950s and 1960sseen as the American
  Challenge
• Some Europeans feared Europe was falling behind
  U.S. in science, technology, and most dynamic
  industrial sectors of the late 20th century.
• Yet, revitalized Europe pooling resources on Big
  Science projects
• Concorde supersonic passenger airliner and
  peaceful uses of atomic energy.

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Massive Growth of Scientific Community

• Four times as many scientists in Europe and North
  America in 1975 as in 1945.
• Highly specialized modern scientists and
  technologists worked as members of a team, which
  completely changed work and lifestyle of modern
  scientists.
• James Watson and Francis Crick win Nobel Prize in
  1962 for discovering structure of DNA

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Change in Class Structure and Social Reform

• Rise of the middle-class largely result of
  increased access to higher education
• Structure of lower classes also became more
  flexible and open.
• Mass exodus from farms and countryside.
• Resulted in drastic decline in one of Europes
  most traditional and least mobile groups.
• Industrial working class ceased to expand while
  job opportunities for white-collar and service
  employees grew rapidly.
• European governments reduced class tensions by
  further expanding social security reforms health
  care, family allowances, maternity grants, public
  housing

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Change in Class Structure and Social Reform

• Gadget revolution
• Like US, Europeans bought washing machines,
  vacuum cleaners, refrigerators, dishwashers,
  radios, TVs, and stereos.
• Increased social welfare resulted in more
  disposable income and less need to save for old
  age.
• Leisure and recreation
• Soccer matches, horse races, movies, TV,
  commercialized hobbies
• Increased attendance in cultural events concerts
  and exhibitions.
• Travel industry mushroomed most dramatically
• Before WWII travel for pleasure or relaxation
  largely aristocratic.
• Paid vacations required by law in most countries

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The Youth Movement and Counterculture

• Counter-Culture rebellion against parents,
  authority figures and status quo
• Baby boom after WWII developed distinctive and
  international youth culture.
• Many raised in economic prosperity and more
  democratic class structure.
• New generation influenced by revival of leftist
  thought created a counter-culture
• Some youth rebelled against conformity and
  boredom of middle-class suburbs.
• Rock music helped tie counter-culture together

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Student Revolts in the Late 1960s
73
Causes of Student Revolts

• Opposition to U.S. war in Vietnam triggered
  revolutionary ferment among youths
• Influenced by Marxist current in French
  universities after 1945 new left thinking in US
• Believed older generation US fighting immoral
  imperialistic war against Vietnam.
• Students in western Europe shared US youth's
  rejection of materialism and belief that postwar
  society was repressive and flawed.
• Problems in higher education classes
  overcrowded little contact with professors
  competition for grades intense demanded even
  more practical areas of study to qualify for
  high-paying jobs after college
• Some students warned of dangers of narrowly
  trained experts ("technocrats") who would serve
  the establishment to the detriment of working
  class.

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French Student Revolt 1968

• Students took over the university, leading to
  violent clashes with police.
• Most students demanded changes in curriculum and
  real voice in running the university
• Appealed to industrial workers for help
  spontaneous general strike spread across France
• To many it seemed the French Fifth Republic might
  collapse
• De Gaulle called in troops and called for new
  elections (which he won decisively)
• The mini-Revolution collapsed.
• For much of the older generation in western
  Europe, the student revolution of 1968 signaled
  the end of illusions and end of an era.

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Czechoslovakia

• Due to Khrushchevs reforms in USSR, 1960s
  brought modest liberalization and more consumer
  goods to eastern Europe
• 1968, reform elements in Czechoslovak Communist
  party gained a majority and voted out long-time
  Stalinist leader.
• Alexander Dubcek elected leader ushered new
  period of thaw and rebirth in famous Prague
  Spring of 1968.
• Czech reformers building socialism with a human
  face frightened hard-line communists.
• Soviet troops brutally invaded Czechoslovakia in
  August 1968.
• Czechoslovakia became one of most hard-line
  communist regimes well into 1980s.
• Brezhnev Doctrine Soviet Union and its allies
  had right to intervene in any socialist country
  whenever they saw the need 

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Prague Spring
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De-Colonization After WWII
78
De-Colonization

• Postwar era saw total collapse of colonial
  empires.
• Between 1947 and 1962, almost every colonial
  territory gained independence.
• New nations of Asia and Africa deeply influenced
  by Western ideas and achievements.

79
Causes of De-Colonialization

• Modern nationalism and belief in
  self-determination and racial equality, spread
  from intellectuals to the masses in virtually
  every colonial territory after WWI.
• Decline of European prestige Japanese victories
  destruction of Europe during WWII
• After 1945, European powers more concerned about
  rebuilding let colonies go

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India

• Played a key role in decolonization and the end
  of empire.
• Indian National Congress British had no choice
  but to develop a native political elite that
  could assist in ruling such huge country.
• Exposure of young Indians to Western ideas of
  nationalism, socialism, and democracy led to
  demands for independence by the early 20th
  century.
• Mohandas K. Gandhi after WWI led independence
  movement with principle of passive resistance
  (civil disobedience)
• Jawaharlal Nehru led Congress party in its push
  for independence
• Clement Attlee and others in Labour party wished
  to focus on internal affairs.
• Divided India into two nations India (Hindu) and
  Pakistan (Muslim)

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Ghandi
82
China

• After WWII (defeat of Japanese invaders) a civil
  war broke out between communists led by Mao
  Zedong and Nationalists led by Jiang Jieshi
  (Chang kai-shek)
• Mao won the revolution and created a communist
  country People's Republic of China

83
Vietnam

• After Japanese removed after WWII, French tried
  to reassert control of Indochina
• Ho Chi Minh led the independence movement in the
  north
• 1954, defeated French forces at Dien Bien Phu
• 1954,Vietnam was divided into North (communist)
  and South (pro-Western) civil war resulted
• U.S. defeated in attempt to prevent communist
  takeover of South Vietnam Vietnam unified in 1975

84
Arab Nationalism

• Arab nationalists loosely united by opposition to
  colonialism and migration of Jews to Palestine
• Israel and Palestine
• Balfour Declaration in 1917 indicated Britain
  favored creation of Jewish national home in
  Palestineopposed by Saudi Arabia Transjordan
• Great Britain announced its withdrawal from
  Palestine in 1948.
• United Nations voted for creation of two states,
  one Arab and one Jewish
• Palestinians vowed to fight on until state of
  Israel destroyed or until they established own
  independent Palestinian state led to several
  wars and numerous conflicts in late 20th century

85
Egypt

• Arab defeat in 1948 by Israel triggered
  nationalist revolution in Egypt in 1952.
• 1956, Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser
  nationalized the Suez Canal, the last symbol and
  substance of Western power in the Middle East.
• France, Britain and Israel attacked Egypt, trying
  to take back control of Suez Canal
• U.S. and Soviet Union demanded their withdrawal
  and the canal remained in Egypt's control